1. Chapter 2 Patterns of Crime

2. History of Crime Statistics
Gathering of crime statistics relatively new phenomenon
Inferences based on statistical demographics date back 200 years
Thomas Robert Malthus

3. History of Crime Statistics
Andre Michel Guerry ( )
Calculated per capita crime rates in France in early 1800s
Adolphe Quetelet ( )
Statistical analysis of crime in Europe
Thermic law – crime varies with seasons and climate: High summer and during hot periods.
Led to development of statistical school

4. Crime Statistics Today
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
Conducted by Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS)
Criminal Victimization in the United States
Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program
Conducted by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
Crime in the United States
National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)
Collected by FBI

5. Programmatic Problems with Available Data
BJS and FBI information differ significantly, not strictly comparable
Examine crime problem from different perspectives
Procedural and methodological differences
Definitions vary between agencies, none based on state or federal statutes

6. The UCR Program Crime Index Term discontinued in 2005
Provided crime rate to be compared over time and across locations
Expressed as:
X number of offenses per 100,000 people
Term discontinued in 2005

7. Part I/Index Crimes Violent Crimes Murder Rape Robbery
Aggravated assault
Property Crimes
Burglary
Larceny
Motor vehicle theft
Arson

8. Cleared Crimes Cleared/solved crimes: Clearance rate: Arrest made
Perpetrator known but arrest not possible
Clearance rate:
Proportion of reported/discovered crimes within given offense category that are cleared

9. UCR Problems UCR is a reporting program Dark figure of crime
Only includes crimes known to police
Seriously underestimates true nature of crime in the U.S.
Dark figure of crime

10. UCR Problems Reasons for failure to report crime (e.g., rape)
Fear of perpetrator
Shame
Fear of not being believed
Fear of further participation in the criminal justice system

11. NIBRS
Funded in part by Federal Crime Identification Technology Act of 1998
Still being phased in
Most important feature is incident-driven nature
Collects detailed data on circumstances surrounding each criminal incident

12. NIBRS Crime definitions revised Reports more detailed than UCR program
46 Group A offenses in 22 crime categories
11 Group B offense categories (collect arrest data only)
Reports more detailed than UCR program
Include information about offense, parties involved, property (if any)

13. Hate Crimes Hate/bias crimes:
Crimes motivated by religious, ethnic, racial, or sexual orientation prejudice, or by bias against persons with disabilities
Collection mandated by Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990

14. Hate Crimes Hate groups
KKK, Aryan Nations, National Alliance, etc.
Existed for many years
Most hate crimes not committed by hate groups
Majority of hate crimes are committed by teens, primarily white males, acting alone or in groups

15. Data Gathering Under the NCVS
NCVS began in 1972
Information obtained through interviews
Includes information on unreported crimes
More accurate measure of incidence of crime in U.S.

16. Data Gathering Under the NCVS
Data collected by U.S. Census Bureau
42,000 households, 76,000 people
Interviews at six-month intervals for three years
Anyone 12 years or older included
Gathers information on victims and crimes

17. Crimes Included in NCVS
Violent Crimes
Rape
Personal robbery
Aggravated and simple assault
Property Crimes
Household burglar
Personal and household theft
Motor vehicle theft
Does not include murder, arson, crimes against businesses, or crimes against children under 12

18. Critique of the NCVS Possible overreporting
Definitions of crime do not correspond to federal or state statutes
Recent changes in the NCVS make it hard to compare earlier findings with current data

19. Major Crime Shifts Early 1940s – sharp decrease in crime (WWII)
1960s – 1990s – dramatic increase in crime
Post-WWII baby-boomers entered crime-prone years
Increased reporting and data collection
Disruption of 1960s
1991 – 2003 – decrease in crime
Baby-boomers aging out of crime
Stricter laws, expanded justice system
Economic expansion
Changing demographics, family planning

20. Next Crime Cycle? May be on verge of new cycle of increased crime
Possible causes
Economic uncertainty, increased unemployment
Growing teen population
More ex-cons back on the street
More gang influence
Copycat crimes
Social disorganization after natural disasters

21. The Crime Problem
Do crime rates accurately measure extent of crime problem in US?
Official rates suggest crime decreasing
Rates only based on small group of crimes
Do not include drug offenses
Correctional population might give better picture of the crime problem

22. Crime in World Context
Violent crime rate in US much higher than in other industrial democracies
Elliott Currie argues that the drop in crime is a “falling-off from an extraordinary peak”
Levels of violence in US still unreasonably high

23. Criminality index = actual crime rate + latent crime rate
Criminality index – actual extent of the crime problem
Latent crime rate – rate of crime calculated on basis of crimes likely to be committed by those incapacitated by the system
Criminality index = actual crime rate + latent crime rate

24. Criminal Homicide Homicide versus murder:
Homicide: willful killing of one human being by another
Murder : criminal/unlawful homicide, killing without legal justification or excuse

25. Criminal Homicide Types of murder:
First-degree – planned, premeditated
Second-degree – crime of passion
Third-degree - negligent homicide, involuntary manslaughter
Felony murder – killing during the commission of another felony

26. Forcible Rape UCR/NIBRS – three categories Forcible rape
Statutory rape
Attempted forcible rape

27. Forcible Rape Other types of rape: Spousal rape Gang rape Date rape
Same-sex rape

28. Forcible Rape Motivation of rapists:
Contemporary thought sees rape as a crime of power
Rapists demean victims to feel powerful, important
Some scholars returning to emphasis on sexual gratification as cause of rape

29. Robbery UCR/NIBRS definition NCVS definition also includes attempts
The unlawful taking or attempted taking of property that is in the immediate possession of another force or threat of force and/or by putting the victim in fear
NCVS definition also includes attempts

30. Robbery
Highway/street robbery
Strong-arm robbery
Armed robbery

31. Assault Aggravated assault: Simple assault:
The unlawful attack by one person upon another for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury
Simple assault:
Attack without a weapon resulting either in minor injury or in undetermined injury requiring less than two days of hospitalization

32. Burglary UCR/NIBRS definition Categories of burglary
The unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or a theft
Use of force not required
Categories of burglary
Forcible entry
Attempted forcible entry
Unlawful entry without force

33. Larceny UCR/NIBRS: NCVS – two categories
The unlawful taking, carrying, leading, or riding away by stealth of property, other than a motor vehicle, from the possession or constructive possession of another
NCVS – two categories
Household larceny
Personal larceny

34. Motor Vehicle Theft
UCR/NIBRS - theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle
Carjacking - stealing an occupied car
Usually involves a weapon
Victim frequently injured or killed

35. Arson Arson (UCR/NIBRS): Not reported by NCVS
Any willful or malicious burning or attempt to burn, with or without intent to defraud, a dwelling house, public building, motor vehicle or aircraft, personal property of another
Not reported by NCVS

36. Arson Motivations for arson: Thrill-seekers Vandals Pyromaniacs
Arson for vengeance
Vanity pyromaniacs
Conceal other crimes
Defrauding insurance companies – most common motivation

37. Part II Offenses Less serious offenses Many are misdemeanors
UCR only collects arrest data
Includes victimless or “social order” crimes

38. Other Sources of Data Crime Awareness and Campus Security Act of 1990
Requires colleges/universities to report campus crime statistics
Campus Sexual Assault Victims’ Bill of Rights
Amends 1990 Act
Requires schools to develop policies to deal with sexual assault on campus
Campus Security Statistics web site
Created by 1998 amendment

39. Unreported Crime Dark figure of crime:
Unreported crimes not found in official crime statistics
Self-report surveys provide information on this
Anonymous respondents
Report on crimes they have committed

40. Problems with Self-Report Surveys
Subjects usually young people
Questions often focus on petty crimes
Typically focus on juvenile delinquency
No guarantee of respondent accuracy

41. Social Dimensions of Crime
Aspects of crime and victimization as they relate to socially significant attributes by which groups are defined and according to which individuals are assigned group membership
Key social dimensions
Gender
Ethnicity/race
Age
Income/wealth
Profession
Social class/social standing

42. Correlations
Connection or association observed to exist between two measurable variables
Positive
Negative
Correlation does not imply causation
Spurious correlations

43. Age and Crime Age is negatively related to crime
Desistance phenomenon –most forms of criminality decrease with age
Elderly may be involved in crime
Less likely to commit street crime
Generally commit crimes requiring special skills, knowledge

44. Gender and Crime
Gender is called “the best single predictor of criminality”
Most crime committed by men
Rate of female criminality has changed little over time
Women also victimized less frequently than men (except for rape and spousal abuse)

45. Race and Crime Apparent link between crime and race
Race-based disparities in arrests, incarceration
Differential treatment by justice system?
William Wilbanks – Myth of a Racist Criminal Justice System
Race/crime relationship is a source of divisiveness in American society
Has led to increased fear of crime among African-Americans

46. Social Class and Crime
Prior to 1960, correlation between social class and crime assumed
Self-report studies in 1960s found rates of self-reported crime consistent across social classes
Class/crime relationship may be result of discretionary practices within justice system
Recent research supports class/crime relationship