Heredity and Conception

Heredity and Conception
CHAPTER 2 Heredity and Conception

Learning Outcomes LO1 Explain the influences of heredity on development, referring to chromosomes and genes, mitosis and meiosis, twins, and dominant and recessive traits. LO2 Describe the features and causes of various chromosomal abnormalities. LO3 Describe the features and causes of various genetic abnormalities. LO4 Discuss methods of detecting genetic abnormalities. LO5 Describe methods of determining our genotypes and our phenotypes. LO6 Describe the process of conception. LO7 Discuss the causes of infertility and alternate ways of becoming parents. This serves as a preview for the topics covered in this chapter and are correlated to the Learning Outcomes © Fancy/Veer/Corbis

TRUTH OR FICTION? T F Your father determined whether you are female or male. T F You can carry the genes for a deadly illness and not become sick yourself. T F Approximately 120 to 150 boys are conceived for every 100 girls. T F Sperm travel about at random inside the woman’s reproductive tract. T F “Test-tube” babies are grown in a laboratory dish throughout their 9- month gestation period. T F You can select the sex of your child. © iStockphoto.com

LO1 The Influence of Heredity on Development
© Fancy/Veer/Corbis

The Influence of Heredity on Development
Heredity defines our nature. It is based on the biological transmission of physical and psychological traits from generation to generation. The field of biology that studies heredity is called GENETICS. Traits are transmitted by: Chromosomes Genes Introduction to the first topic: Heredity. Next slides will cover Chromosomes and Genes individually.

Chromosomes and Genes CHROMOSOMES Rod-shaped structures found in cells
Typical human cells have 46 (23 pairs) Each contains thousands of segments called genes. GENES Biochemical materials that regulate how traits develop Some traits are transmitted by a single pair of genes. Other traits are POLYGENIC (using several pairs). We (humans) have approximately 20-25,000 genes. Genes are segments of strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA forms a double spiral (HELIX) that looks like a twisting ladder. Each “rung” on the ladder consist of 4 basic chemicals that are placed in pairs of either: Adenine and Thymine Cytosine and Guanine The sequence of the rungs are the individual genetic code that cause the developing organism to grow arms, wings, skin, or scales. The number of genes in humans was originally thought to be much higher due to the complex nature of the human life form. Certain types of round worms also have about 20,000 genes. Next slide shows diagram drawing of DNA

Figure 2.1 – The Double Helix of DNA

Beginnings of Life – Mitosis & Meiosis
Life begins as a single cell or zygote that divides repeatedly. There are TWO types of cell division. Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Mitosis: genetic code carried into new cells in our bodies
DNA breaks apart (unzips); and the double helix duplicates. DNA forms two camps on either side of cell; cell divides. Each incomplete rung combines with its partner to form a new ladder; resulting identical copies of the DNA strand separate when cell divides; each is newly formed cell; genetic code is identical in new cells unless mutations occur through environmental influences such as radiation; mutations occur by chance Next slide is graphic Figure 2.2 p. 25 showing Mitosis

Figure 2.2 – The Double Helix of DNA

Meiosis Sperm and ova are produced through meiosis or reduction division. 46 chromosomes within the cell nucleus first line up into 23 pairs. DNA ladders unzip, leaving unpaired halves of chromosome; when cell divides each member of each pair goes to each newly formed cell. Each new cell nucleus contains only 23 chromosomes, not 46. 23 chromosomes come from the mother and 23 chromosomes come from the father; 22 pairs are autosomes and 23rd pair are sex chromosomes. Next slide shows Figure 2.3 on p Depicts the X and Y Chromosomes that determine the sex of the individual. This answers Truth or Fiction # 1. Your father determined whether you are female or male. TRUE. He did so by supplying a Y or an X sex chromosome. If we receive another X sex chromosome from our fathers, we develop into females. If we receive a Y sex chromosome (named after its Y shape) from our fathers, we develop into males.

Identical and Fraternal Twins
Sometimes a zygote divides into two cells that separate and becomes two individuals or twins. There are two types of twins: Monozygotic (MZ): zygote divides into two cells that separate so each develops into individual with same genetic makeup - IDENTICAL Dizygotic (DZ): two ova are produced in the same month and they are each fertilized by a different sperm cell - FRATERNAL DZ runs in families through the maternal side; if mother or grandmother was a twin, or mother has had twins already the chances increase of her bearing twins again Ovulation: as a woman nears end of child-bearing years, ovulation becomes less regular causing multiple ovum to be released some months, thus increasing likelihood of twins Fertility Drugs also increase the chances of multiple births by causing more than one ovum to be released. Sometimes a zygote divides into two cells that separate so that each develops into a separate individual, or twins. There are two types of twins.

Dominant and Recessive Traits
Traits are determined by pairs of genes; each member of a pair of genes is termed an allele. Homozygous: both of the alleles for a trait are the same Heterozygous: alleles for a trait differ Incomplete dominance/codominance: effects of both alleles are shown - a sort of “averaging” Dominant trait: trait whose influence will be shown each time the gene is present Recessive trait: trait whose influence will be shown only when it is paired with a second recessive gene Carriers: people who bear one dominant gene and one recessive trait Traits can be hair, color, eye color, etc. Next slide shows Figure 2.4 on p. 26 Answer to “T - F”? # 2. You can carry the genes for a deadly illness and not become sick yourself. TRUE. This occurs when genes are recessive and dominant genes cancel their effects.

Figure 2.4 – Transmission of Dominant and Recessive Traits
ScienceDaily (Jan. 31, 2008) New research shows that people with blue eyes have a single, common ancestor. A team at the University of Copenhagen have tracked down a genetic mutation which took place 6-10,000 years ago and is the cause of the eye color of all blue-eyed humans alive on the planet today. What is the genetic mutationﾒOriginally, we all had brown eyes, said Professor Eiberg from the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine. But a genetic mutation affecting the OCA2 gene in our chromosomes resulted in the creation of a switch, which literally turned off the ability to produce brown eyes. The OCA2 gene codes for the so-called P protein, which is involved in the production of melanin, the pigment that gives color to our hair, eyes and skin. The switch, which is located in the gene adjacent to OCA2 does not, however, turn off the gene entirely, but rather limits its action to reducing the production of melanin in the iris effectively diluting brown eyes to blue. The switchﾕs effect on OCA2 is very specific therefore. If the OCA2 gene had been completely destroyed or turned off, human beings would be without melanin in their hair, eyes or skin color is a condition known as albinism.

Figure 2.1 – Examples of Dominant and Recessive Traits

LO2 Chromosomal Abnormalities

Chromosomal Abnormalities
Chromosomal or genetic abnormalities can cause health problems. Some disorders are caused by abnormalities in the 22 pairs of autosomes. Others are found in the 23rd pair (sex chromosomes). Some genetic abnormalities are caused by combinations of genes called: Multifactorial problems These reflect both a predisposition AND environmental contributors. Overview of Chromosomal Abnormalities; next slides will cover specific problems - Down’s Syndrome, sex-linked chromosomal abnormalities,

Characteristic features:
Down Syndrome Caused by an extra chromosome of the 21st pair, resulting in 47 chromosomes. Probability of having a Down Syndrome child increases with advancing age of parents. Characteristic features: rounded face, protruding tongue, broad, flat nose, sloping fold of skin over the inner corners of the eyes Show deficits in cognitive and motor development Typically die from cardiovascular problems by middle age, although modern medicine has extended life expectancy. Down’s Syndrome, Down Syndrome, or Trisomy 21. See Figure 2.5 on p. 27

Figure 2.5 – Down Syndrome The development and adjustment of children with Down syndrome are related to their acceptance by their families. Children with Down syndrome who are reared at home develop more rapidly and achieve higher levels of functioning than those who are reared in institutions. © U.P. Images/iStockphoto.com / © Tomasz Markowski/iStockphoto.com

Sex-Linked Chromosomal Abnormalities
Sex-linked chromosomal abnormalities: disorders stemming from abnormal number of sex chromosomes Most individuals with disorder are infertile. Approx. 1 male in 700/1000 has extra Y chromosome resulting in heightened male secondary sex characteristics

Sex-Linked Chromosomal Abnormalities
XYY’s somewhat taller and develop heavier beards. Once termed “supermales” due to the characteristics. But often have more problems than XY’s Such as mild delays in language development

Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)
1 male in 500 has syndrome Caused by extra X sex chromosome Produces less testosterone than normal males Therefore, the testes, deepening of voice, musculature, and male pattern of body hair does not develop properly. Usually have enlarged breasts (gynecomastia) Typically mildly retarded, particularly language Treated with testosterone replacement therapy, they see improvement in sex characteristics and mood elevation but remain infertile.

Turner Syndrome (X) Approx. 1 girl in 2,500 has syndrome
Female has single X chromosome. External genitals are normal, ovaries poorly developed, producing little estrogen Shorter than average and infertile Cognitive deficits with low estrogen: problems with visual-spatial skills, mathematics, and nonverbal memory

Triple X Syndrome (XXX)
Approx. 1 girl in 1,000 has syndrome Normal in appearance Tend to show lower-than-average language skills Poorer memory for recent events Development of external sex organs appear normal Increased incidence of infertility

LO3 Genetic Abnormalities

Genetic Abnormalities
A number of disorders attributed to genes: Phenylketonuria (PKU) Huntington’s Disease Sickle-Cell Anemia Tay-Sachs Disease Cystic Fibrosis Sex-Linked Genetic Abnormalities This slide is an overview of the types of Genetic Abnormalities that will be discuss individually on separate slides

Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Enzyme disorder transmitted by a recessive gene affecting 1 child in 8,000. Cannot metabolize an amino acid called phenylalanine; builds up in body and impairs functioning of the central nervous system (CNS) Results are mental retardation, psychological disorders, physical problems No cure, but PKU can be detected in new born children through blood or urine analysis; if identified placed on diets low in phenylalanine within three weeks of birth and develop normally

Huntington’s Disease Affects approx. 1 in 18,000 Americans Fatal, progressive degenerative disorder Dominant trait Physical symptoms include uncontrollable muscle movements Psychological symptoms include loss of intellectual functioning and personality change Onset during middle adulthood Half of their offspring will have disorder Affects 1 in 18,000 Americans No cure, but helpful medicines

Caused by a recessive gene Most common among African Americans
Sickle-Cell Anemia Caused by a recessive gene Most common among African Americans 1 in 10 African Americans 1 in 20 Latino/a Americans Red blood cells take on the shape of a sickle and clump together, obstructing blood and oxygen supply. Decreased oxygen can impair cognitive and academic functions. Physical problems include: painful swollen joints, jaundice, and potentially fatal conditions such as pneumonia, stroke, and heart and kidney failure

Caused by recessive gene Causes CNS to degenerate resulting in death
Tay-Sachs Disease Caused by recessive gene Causes CNS to degenerate resulting in death Commonly found among children in Jewish families of Eastern European background 1 in 30 Jewish Americans carry recessive gene Children with disorder progressively lose control of muscles experiencing visual and auditory sensory losses, develop mental retardation, become paralyzed, and die by end of early childhood (age 5). CNS (Central Nervous System)

Cystic Fibrosis Caused by recessive gene Most common fatal hereditary disease among European Americans Approx. 30,000 Americans have disorder, 10 million more are carriers (1 in 31 people) Children suffer from excessive production of thick mucus that clogs the pancreas and lungs. Most victims die of respiratory infections in their 20s.

Sex-Linked Genetic Abnormalities
Genetic defects only carried on the X sex chromosome Hemophilia: inability of the blood to clot Queen Victoria was a carrier of hemophilia Instructor may want to discuss the historical ramifications of the Romanov’s (last Russian monarchy - all killed in Communist revolution - young Tsarovich was a hemophiliac and much of the discontent in the country was attributed to the Tsarina Alexandra’s preoccupation with a monk (Rasputin) that claimed to be able to cure/control the young boy’s ailment). © Photo 12/The Image Works

Sex-Linked Genetic Abnormalities
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: weakening of muscles, inability to walk, general wasting away, and sometimes death Involve recessive genes Females with two X sex chromosomes are less likely to show sex-linked disorder. Sons of female carriers are more likely to be afflicted.

LO4 Genetic Counseling and Prenatal Testing

Genetic Counseling and Prenatal Testing
Genetic counselors compile information about a couple’s genetic heritage to explore if their children will have a genetic abnormality. Couples with likelihood of passing on genetic abnormality can make informed decision as to alternative family plans, such as adoption. Prenatal testing can also indicate if the embryo or fetus is carrying genetic abnormalities. Amniocentesis, Chorionic Villus Sampling, Ultrasound, and Blood Tests are examples of prenatal testing. The website: - offers a tremendous wealth of information on Genetic Counseling. Individuals can purchase a kit and have their genetic code read.

Amniocentesis Performed on mother usually around 14 – 16 weeks after conception, although sometimes earlier Amniotic Fluid containing cells sloughed off by fetus is withdrawn from the amniotic sac with a syringe. Cells are separated, grown in a culture, and examined for chromosomal abnormalities. Routine test for women over 35 to detect for Down’s Syndrome as chances for syndrome dramatically increase as women approach age 40. Test also can determine the sex of child. Amniocentesis does carry some risk of miscarriage. Approx. 1 in 100 Next slide shows graphic of procedure

Figure 2.6 – Amniocentesis

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
Similar to Amniocentesis Performed between weeks Syringe inserted through vagina into uterus and sucks out threadlike projections (villi) from the outer membrane that covers the amniotic sac and fetus. Results available in days CVS slightly higher risk than amniocentesis of spontaneous abortion; both increase the risk of miscarriage

Ultrasound Sound waves that are too high in frequency to be heard by human ear are used to obtain information about the fetus. Ultrasound waves are reflected by the fetus, and the computer uses the information to generate a picture of the fetus. Picture is termed a sonogram. Used to guide the syringe in amniocentesis and CVS and to locate fetal structures when intrauterine transfusions are needed for survival of fetus as with Rh disease Used to track growth of fetus, detect multiple pregnancies, detect structural abnormalities Procedure is able to detect sex of fetus See Figure 2.7 on p. 31 of text

Blood Tests Used to identify sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, and cystic fibrosis Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) assay used to detect neural tube defects such as spina bifida and chromosomal abnormalities. Neural tube defects cause elevation in the AFP level in the mother’s blood. High AFP levels related to increased risk of fetal death.

LO5 Heredity and the Environment

Heredity and the Environment
Inheritance, nutrition, learning, exercise, accident, and illness all influence development of traits. Genotypes Set of traits we inherit from our parents (our blueprint) Phenotypes Actual set of traits; develop because of both genetic and environmental influences (what actually transpires) Canalization Environmental conditions may prevent an individual from reaching their full potential, but if environmental influences improve, there is a tendency to “snap back” to the genetically determined “canal.” Personality and intelligence are apparently less canalized (environment playing stronger role than with physical development). The key to understanding this topic is “POTENTIAL”. We have the genotypes we are born with…providing “potential” for certain attributes, and the environment we are born and raised in help to determine the development or lack of development of those potentials. Canalization = is a measure of the ability of a population to produce the same phenotype regardless of variability of its environment or genotype.

Genetic - Environmental Correlation
One problem in sorting out the influences of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) is that genes partly determine the environments to which people are exposed. Psychologist Sandra Scarr describes 3 types of correlations between genetic and environmental influences as they relate to age of individuals: Passive Correlation Parents intentionally and unintentionally place children in certain environments; it is called passive because child has no choice Evocative Correlation A child’s genotype is connected with behaviors that elicit or evoke certain types of social responses from others, and these responses in turn become part of the environment of the child Active Correlation As we mature, we become more proactive in creating our environment. Choosing environments that allow us to develop inherited preferences is termed niche-picking. Good place to ask students if they can relate these concepts to their own development. What did their parents expose them to at an early age and how did that influence their preferences? What type of socialization skills did they get, and how have they taken more control over their environment as they have matured? Do they think they are more what nature dictated or what nurture has provided…or a little of both?

The Epigentic Framework
The relationship between genetic and environmental influences is not a one-way street; it is BIDIRECTIONAL. Genes affect the development of traits and behaviors, but likewise traits and behaviors lead us to certain environments. According to Epigenesis, development is a continuum of bidirectional exchanges between nature and nurture. © Brand X Images/Jupiterimages

Strategies for Understanding
Research strategies used to aid in sorting out effects of heredity and environment Kinship Studies Study distribution of traits among relatives with differing degrees of relatedness If genes are dominant in manifesting a trait, people who are most closely related should be more likely to share it. Twin Studies Study both MZ twins sharing 100% genes and DZ twins sharing 50% genes Study of MZ twins raised apart from infancy show similarities much the same as those raised together, leading us to believe there is a strong genetic component to traits. Adoption Studies Study children separated from biological parents at an early age When children raised by adoptive parents demonstrate more similarities of traits with natural parents, again a strong argument for genetic predominance seems to prevail.

LO6 Conception: Against All Odds

CONCEPTION: The Players (Ova & Sperm)
Conception: union of an ovum and a sperm cell that occurs when the chromosomes of each combine to form 23 new pairs Ova Women are born with approx. 400,000 ova - all they will ever have but in an immature form During woman’s reproductive years, approx. 400 (1 in 1,000) will ripen and be released. Ova are much larger than sperm cells but barely visible to the human eye. Sperm Develop in stages, starting with 46 chromosomes, and after meiosis ends with 23 - half X’s and half Y’s Each is about 1/500th of an inch - one of the smallest types of cells in the body.

CONCEPTION: The Journey & Meeting Against All Odds
Journey of the OVUM At signal from female hormones (estrogen and progesterone), some ova begin to mature (puberty). Approx. once a month one, midway through menstrual cycle, one (maybe more) is released from follicle into nearby fallopian tube Takes 3 to 4 days to reach the uterus Not self-propelled; need assistance from cilia (small hair-like structures) and contractions of tube wall If not fertilized, it is discharged through uterus and vagina along with endometrium formed to support an embryo in the menstrual flow. © iStockphoto.com

Figure 2.8 – Female Reproductive Organs

Journey of the SPERM Y chromosomes have greater motility (faster swimmers). 120 to 150 boys are conceived for every 100 girls. Male fetuses experience higher rate of spontaneous abortion during first month of pregnancy. At birth, boys outnumber girls by ratio of 106:100. Boys also have higher incidence of infant mortality, further equalizing sex ratio. Answer to T/F? # 3: Approximately boys are conceived for every 100 girls. = TRUE, but male fetuses suffer a higher rate of spontaneous abortion than females. Answer to T/F? # 4: Sperm travel about at random inside the woman’s reproductive tract. = FICTION - Actually, sperm are apparently attracted to the ovum by chemical changes that occur when it is released.

Journey of the SPERM Approx. 150 million sperm ejaculated but only 1 in 1,000 will approach an ovum Sperm surviving initial obstacles may reach fallopian tubes 60 to 90 minutes after ejaculation. About 2,000 may finally enter correct tube. Still fewer manage to maneuver the final 2 inches against current Journey is “blind” but not random. Sperm are “egged on”  by a change in calcium ions that occurs when an ovum is released by a follicle.

Destination: Conception Only ONE sperm that reach an egg enters. Ova are surrounded by a gelatinous layer that must be penetrated for fertilization to occur. Many sperm secrete an enzyme that can briefly thin the layer. But it only allows one sperm to penetrate. Once a sperm has entered, CONCEPTION has taken place and the layer thickens, locking other sperm out. Chromosomes from the sperm cell line up across from corresponding chromosomes within the egg cell. Form 23 new pairs with unique set of genetic instructions See figure 2.9 on p. 34

INFERTILITY Approximately 1 in 6 American couples experiences problems with conception. The term infertility is not usually applied until conceiving on their own has been unsuccessful for 1 year. Once viewed as primarily a female problem It is a male problem 40% of the time. Next slides will detail male and female infertility problems

INFERTILITY PROBLEMS IN MEN
Low sperm count Most common problem in men Deformed sperm Genetic factors Environmental poisons Low motility (poor swimmers) Infectious diseases (such as STI’s) Chronic diseases (such as diabetes) Injury of the testes Overheating, as seen in long distance runners or from using narrow bicycle seats An “autoimmune” response Man’s body attacks his own sperm as a foreign agents

INFERTILITY PROBLEMS IN WOMEN
Irregular ovulation or failure to ovulate Most common problem in women Declining hormone levels So-called “fertility” drugs (e.g., clomiphene & pergonal) may cause multiple births by stimulating more than one ovum to ripen during a month Endometriosis Inflammation of the tissue that is sloughed off during menstruation Can be treated with hormones or surgery More common among women who delay childbearing Obstructions/malfunctions of reproductive tract Infections may scar the fallopian tubes and other organs impeding passage of sperm or ova Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) From bacterial or vial infections, including STIs gonorrhea & chlamydia Antibiotics may help infections but infertility may be irreversible.

Methods Used to Help Infertile Couples Bear Children
Artificial Insemination Sperm collected and quick-frozen Injected into woman’s uterus at ovulation In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) “test-tube” babies Ova and sperm are placed in a laboratory dish for fertilization. Injected for implantation into mother’s uterus for gestation May take several attempts because only a minority of tries meet with success; several embryos may be injected at once Performed rather routinely; expensive; no guarantees Answer to T-F? # 5: :Test-tube babies are grown in a laboratory dish throughout their 9-month gestation period. FICTION = This is not true: they are conceived in laboratory dishes but then implanted in the uterus for gestation. Good topic for class discussion on IVVF would be the recent news story of the “Octo-Mom” … producing 8 live babies form IVF. Much controversy surrounds the ethical standards of multiple implantations, students will usually have strong opinions on this topic.

Surrogate Mothers Women who carry babies to term for other women Usually paid and sign a contract to surrender parental rights to child Can sometimes be a woman and man’s ova and sperm fertilized IVF and implanted in surrogate Or can be surrogates ova and artificial insemination by man if woman’s ovum are not viable

Adoption May be occasional conflicts between adoptive parents and biological parents who change their minds Can be time intensive; many Americans find it easier to adopt foreign infants or children with special needs © Alex Wong/Getty Images

Selecting the Sex of Your Child
Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) Developed to detect genetic disorders Also revels sex of embryo Ova are fertilized in vitro After a few days of cell division, chromosomal structure examined microscopically to reveal sex Embryos of the desired sex are implanted where one or more may grow to term Again...implantation cannot be guaranteed. Answer to T-F? Q # 6: You can select the sex of your child. Answer: TRUE, the method for doing so is called preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD). This is also a good topic for class discussion on the implications and ramifications of sex selection. Will more people choose boys than girls? If so, how will that impact the ratio of M/F births?

Heredity and Conception

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Heredity and Conception"— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback

Log in

Auth with social network:

Heredity and Conception

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Heredity and Conception"— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback