1. Color of Child Welfare Policy: Racial Disparities in Child Welfare Services Ruth G. McRoy Center for Social Work Research The University of Texas at Austin Austin, Texas

2. Overrepresentation: A Definition  If a particular racial/ethnic group of children are represented in foster care at a higher percentage than they are represented in the general population  14.7% of children under 18 in US are AA  38% of children in foster care are AA

3. Disproportionality  A situation in which a particular racial/ethnic group of children are represented in foster care at a higher percentage than other racial/ethnic groups  (i.e. If 5% of all White children are in care, then 5% of African American, Hispanic etc.)

4. According to AFCARS report, March 31, 2000  588,000 children in the foster care system White, non Hispanic 35% (207,948) Black, Non-Hispanic 38% (226,363) Hispanic, 15% (88,939) AI/AN Non Hispanic 2% (9,330) Asian/PI NI Non-Hispanic (6,213) Unknown 8% (49,207)

5. Disparities not Unique to Child Welfare  Criminal justice  Health care  Mental health  Homelessness  Victims of violent crime  Special education

6. Criminal Justice & African Americans  12.4% of the U.S. population 48.2% of entire prison population  40% of juveniles in legal custody  Overrepresented in local jails

7. Health Care & African Americans  Rate of diabetes is more than three times that of whites  HIV/AIDS more than seven times that of whites  Infant mortality twice that of whites  Life span differential

8. Treatment Differentials  Minorities are less likely than whites to get…  proper heart medication, heart bypass surgery  kidney dialysis & transplants  Gap greatest between blacks & whites  Blacks on Medicare more likely to have their lower limbs amputated  diabetes Institute of Medicine

9. Mental Health  Recent Surgeon General’s report on inequities  Disparities in availability, accessibility, & quality of mental health services for racial and ethnic minorities

10. Homelessness & African Americans  44% of homeless population  3.5 times more AA than whites are homeless  Overrepresentation includes many women, children & youth

11. Victims of Violent Crime  AA of all ages are more likely to be the victims of serious violent crime than are whites.  At greater risk of knowing someone who had suffered violence  Greater risk not associated with SES differences or differences in area of residence

12. From Underrepresentation to Overrepresentation  African American children  Slavery  Excluded from most orphanages /placed in almshouses  Free foster homes  1910 National Urban League advocated for equitable services for AA children  1923—Most child welfare institutions still segregated

13. 1930  Discrimination against black parents in  Income maintenance  Medical care  Services to unwed mothers  Day care services  Arbitrary enforcement of welfare policies  “Man in the house”  Illegitimate child  home suitability clauses Ira De A. Reid of Urban League

14. In New York City between 1927 and 1939,  Number of cps cases of Caucasian children declined by more than 31% Number of CPS cases of AA children rose by 147% (Piven and Cloward, 1971)  In 1939, 23 of 27 Protestant custodial care agencies took only Caucasian children in NYC AA children often had to be labeled juvenile criminals to qualify for any out of home placement services (Bernstein- Lost Children of Wilder)

15. 1959  reported that more AA children in care and less likely to be adopted Maas and Engler

16. 1963  Culturally insensitive workers  Removing children from “undesirable family situation”  Placing in foster care  81% of children in out of home care in 1963  there because parents were unmarried  came from broken homes  Most were African American & Indian

17. 1963  Remain in foster care for longer periods of time than white children  Not offered adoption on equitable basis  Experience ongoing discrimination in service provision  Served by public agencies  Private agencies serving white children Jeter reports black children…

18. Responses in 1970’s–80’s  NABSW Position Statement  1974 Child Abuse Prevention & Treatment Act  1978 Indian Child Welfare Act  Adoption Assistance & Child Welfare Act  “reasonable efforts”

19. 1980’s & 90’s–present  Growing Numbers of Children in Care  1982 262,000 children in care (52% Anglo)  1993 429,000 (38% Anglo)  2001 588,000 (35% Anglo)

20. New York AFCARS 1998  17% of child population in New York is AA  53,555 children in care 49% African American

21. Reasons for out of home placement—Child Maltreatment  Increase in maltreatment  Increase in poverty  Lindsey (1991) & Pelton (1989)  Parental income is best predictor of child removal & placement Majority of children in care from single-parent, low-income households

22. Differential Attribution & Labeling Bias  Physicians more likely to attribute injury to abuse in lower income homes

23. Neglect  Often product of poverty  Parents under scrutiny/more likely to be reported

24. 1989  “The reason for placement is that the family, frequently due to poverty, does not have the resources to offset the impact of situational or personal problems which themselves are often caused by poverty, and the agencies have failed to provide the needed supports, such as baby sitting, homemaking, day care, financial assistance, and housing assistance.” —Pelton, (1989) pp. 52–53

25. Correlates of Out-of-Home Placement  Poverty  Rates of child poverty rising Impact of welfare reform  Substance abuse  Homelessness  Aids  Teen parenthood  Violence  Racism

26. Disproportionate Poverty  Blacks represent about 12.8% of population yet 23.6% of Blacks are poor  Income differential  Median Income AA 29,740 Whites 52,821  50% female headed AA households avg. income $17,316

27. Child in poverty is  26 times more likely to drop out of school  160 times more likely to give birth as a teen  18 times more likely to be killed by gunfire  60 times more likely to suffer reportable abuse or neglect  46 times more likely to be placed in foster care —According to Annie E. Casey Foundation

28. Substance Abuse  Parental substance abuse  42% of children who were victims of abuse & neglect In 77% alcohol was the problem substance In 23% cocaine was the problem substance  Alcohol and drug related cases more likely to result in foster care placements than other cases (DHHS, 1999)  Black women more likely to be reported for prenatal substance abuse  more likely to have children removed

29. Imprisonment of Parents  1.74 million children have at least one parent in prison  Disproportionately high numbers of AA in prison 9.7 % of Black men ages 20–29 in prison  428,999 black men 2.9% Hispanic men 1.1 percent of non-Hispanic White men ages 20–29  Can lose eligibility for TANF

30. Jail Sentences for African Americans  Both men & women typically serve more time than whites for same offense (Dept. of Justice, 1995)  Children likely to be separated from parents longer than white children  Termination proceedings after 15 of past 22 months (ASFA, 1997)  Visitation is problematic  location not accessible

31. Disparities in Conviction Rates  Two thirds of crack cocaine users are Whites and Hispanics  Persons most likely convicted of possession were AA  84.5% African Americans  10.3% Whites  5.2% Hispanics  Crack cocaine  Harsher penalties than for powder cocaine

32. 1996  Child maltreatment reporting  Service provision  Kinship care  Family preservation —Inequities reported from Courtney

33. 1996  Exit rates  Length of care  Placement stability  Adoption  Majority of racial differences reported were between African Americans and Anglos rather than any other group —Inequities reported from Courtney

34. 2001  Report/no report  Investigation/no investigation  Substantiation/no substantiation  Case closed/no services/in home services/out of home care (kin,foster)  Reunification/adoption/remain in care or age out Barth develops model of caseload flow of children

35. Several recent studies  NIS-1,NIS2,NIS3—estimates about incidence of child abuse & neglect  Reported o differences in incidence of child abuse & neglect by racial group Issues raised about sample selection bias raise questions about validity/possible undercount

36. 2001  “There are small to medium increases in the disproportionality by population experienced by AA children as they move through the child welfare system, which results in substantial differences in their representation in child welfare compared to their representation in general population”  Argues greater risk for child abuse & neglect in AA families  Reentry rates highest for AA children Barth suggests multiplicative model

37. 2001  “No compelling reason to assume that this disproportionality is not generally in the best interests of the children served” “Proportionate to need”—Barth

38. Service Provision  Lack of culturally competent child protective service workers  Most have no training in service provision to African Americans  Most lack training in risk assessments, child dev., parenting, etc.

39. Service Provision  Greater substantiation on AA & Latino children  Zellman (1992) found survey participants more likely to believe report should be made on child of color described in vignette than white child

40. Service Provision  AA children more likely to remain in care longer, less visitation, fewer contacts with workers  AA children least likely to have plans for contact with families, fewer services

41. Service Provision  Less likely to be…  adopted  reunified from non-kinship care  offered family preservation services Types of services temporary & not sufficient to raise families out of poverty

42. Adoption  Despite advantages of minority specializing agencies,few agencies have used or established such programs

43. Shortage of AA Adoptive Parents  Lack of sufficient minority & trained staff  Knowledge of subsidies  Screening out process  Transracial adoptions

44. Decision-Making Points  Worker/supervisor level (investigation)  Reporting  Decision to investigate  Service provision  Placement recommendation

45. Judicial Level  Experience/knowledge  Legal representation  Advocacy

46. Worker/Supervisor Level  Placement  Knowledge/experience  Bias  Caseload  Perception of available homes

47. Impact of Other Systems on Child Welfare  Economic system  Criminal justice system  Legal System  Welfare System

48. Intersections  Reasons for disproportionality  Person- or community-centered  Agency-centered  Societal

49. Person- or Community-Centered  Child, Family, and Community  Location or residence  Poverty/uninsured/lack of resources  Lack of knowledge to access services/legal rights  Community or individual mistrust  Visibility hypothesis—visibility might propel into foster care or lack protections —Jenkins, Diamond, Garland, et.al

50. Agency-Centered  Lack of culturally responsive services  Lack of Minority staff  Lack of accessible locations  Failure to reach population  Decision making  Myths/stereotypes about AA families

51. Implications  Need to change how workers are trained

52. Need knowledge of culture  Impact of racism and poverty on behavior, attitudes, values  Help seeking behaviors  Role of language, speech patterns, communication styles  Impact of social service policies on clients of color  Power relationships  Privilege

53. Skill Development  Ability to communicate accurate information on behalf of culturally different clients  Ability to openly discuss racial and ethnic differences and respond to culturally based cues  Ability to assess meaning ethnicity has for individual client  Client empowerment and Rapport building

54. Societal-Centered  Discrimination/racism  Funding

55. Racism  Missouri Fed. Judge stated in case on racial disparities in sentencing  “Perceptions of AA as dangerous, different, or subordinate are lessons learned and internalized completely outside of our awareness, and are reinforced by the media-generated stereotyping.”

56. Other Factors  Failure of domestic policy has led to racial isolation and concentration of the black poor in inner cities  Black migration to urban areas Lack of responsiveness re jobs, housing, services, educational programs  Growth of prison industry  Insufficient drug treatment programs

57. Changes Result From  Legislation  Court cases—class action suits/civil rights  Media attention to institutional discrimination  Governmental reports  Mandated changes in training for judges,workers, other staff

58. Challenge  Acknowledge intersystemic disparities  Child protection or  Promoting children’s welfare