1. Organizing Data

2.  The word science is derived from a Latin verb meaning “to know”. Science is a way of knowing about the natural world.  At the heart of science is inquiry, a search for information and explanation.

3.  The field of science starts with curiosity and observations about the natural world.  Recorded observations are called data.

4.  Science is a limited field that can only answer certain types of questions.  C=Consistency (repeatable experiments)  O=Observability (with natural senses or tools)  N=Natural (natural causes for natural events)  P=Predictability (natural cause can be predicted)  T=Testability (with experimentation)  T=Tentative (can be changed with new evidence)  Science is limited to questions that can be answered by experimentation and evidence.

5.  There is no formula for successful scientific inquiry— no single scientific method with a rule book that researchers must follow.

6.  In science, a hypothesis is a tentative answer to a well-framed question—an explanation on trial.  It is usually an educated guess, based on experience and on the data available.  Must be testable.  Must be falsifiable.

7. Fig. 1-24a Observations Question Hypothesis #1: Dead batteries Hypothesis #2: Burnt-out bulb

8. Fig. 1-24b Test prediction Hypothesis #1: Dead batteries Hypothesis #2: Burnt-out bulb Test prediction Prediction: Replacing batteries will fix problem Prediction: Replacing bulb will fix problem Test falsifies hypothesis Test does not falsify hypothesis

9.  Many poisonous species are brightly colored, which warns potential predators  Mimics are harmless species that closely resemble poisonous species  Henry Bates hypothesized that this mimicry evolved in harmless species as an evolutionary adaptation that reduces their chances of being eaten

10.  This hypothesis was tested with the poisonous Eastern Coral Snake and its’ mimic the non- poisonous Scarlet Kingsnake  Both species live in the Carolinas, but the Kingsnake is also found in regions without poisonous coral snakes  If predators inherit an avoidance of the Coral Snake’s coloration, then the colorful Kingsnake will be attacked less often in the regions where coral snakes are present Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

11. Fig. 1-25 South Carolina North Carolina Key Scarlet kingsnake (nonpoisonous) Eastern coral snake (poisonous) Range of scarlet kingsnake only Overlapping ranges of scarlet kingsnake and eastern coral snake

12.  To test this mimicry hypothesis, researchers made hundreds of artificial snakes: ◦ An experimental group resembling Kingsnakes ◦ A control group resembling plain brown snakes Equal numbers of both types were placed at field sites, including areas without poisonous Coral Snakes Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

13. Fig. 1-26a (a) Artificial kingsnake

14. Fig. 1-26b (b) Brown artificial snake that has been attacked

15. After four weeks, the scientists retrieved the artificial snakes and counted bite or claw marks The data fit the predictions of the mimicry hypothesis: the ringed snakes were attacked less frequently in the geographic region where Coral Snakes were found Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

16. Fig. 1-27 Artificial kingsnakes Brown artificial snakes 83% 84% 17% 16% Coral snakes absent Coral snakes present Percent of total attacks on artificial snakes 100 80 60 40 20 0 RESULTS

17.  A controlled experiment compares an experimental group (the artificial Kingsnakes) with a control group (the artificial brown snakes)  Ideally, only the variable of interest (the color pattern of the artificial snakes) differs between the control and experimental groups  A controlled experiment means that control groups are used to cancel the effects of unwanted variables  A controlled experiment does not mean that all unwanted variables are kept constant Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

18.  Graphs provide a visual image that allows you to analyze and organize your data in a meaningful way.

19.  Data points plotted accurately.  Label both axis.  Dependent variable on Y-axis.  Independent variable on X-axis.  Must have a concise, explanatory title.  Key identifies symbols or colors.  Each axis has an appropriate scale. ← What’s wrong with this graph?

20.  Line graphs are used when one variable (the independent variable) affects another, the dependent variable.  The data is continuous for both variables.  The dependent variable is usually the biological response.  The independent variable is often time or the experimental treatment.

21.  Bar graphs are used for data that is non- numerical and discrete (separate) for at least one variable.  Data may be grouped into separate categories.  There are no dependent or independent variables.  Bars do not touch.  Multiple sets of data may be displayed side-by-side.

22.  Pie graphs can be used instead of bar graphs, generally in cases where there are six or fewer categories involved.  A pie graph provides strong visual impact of the relative proportions in each category (particularly where one is dominant).

23.  Histograms are plots of continuous data and are often used to represent frequency distributions, where the Y-axis shows the number of times a particular value was seen.  Data is numerical and continuous, so the bars touch.  X-axis usually records the class intervals.  Y-axis usually records the number of individuals in each class.