1. Ergogenic Aids and Sport
Chapter 16
Ergogenic Aids and Sport

2. Chapter 16 Overview Researching ergogenic aids Pharmacological agents
Hormonal agents
Physiological agents
Nutritional agents

3. Ergogenic Aids Introduction
Ergogenic (“work producing”) versus ergolytic (“work breaking”) substances
Potential aids
Pharmacological agents
Hormones
Physiological agents
Nutritional agents

4. Table 16.1

5. Table 16.1 (continued)

6. Researching Ergogenic Aids
Must be proven to enhance performance
Claim alone insufficient
True ergogenic versus pseudoergogenic responses
Placebo effect
Placebo: inactive substance that looks like the real thing
Expectations affect physiological response
Double-blind experimental design

7. Figure 16.1

8. Researching Ergogenic Aids
Scientific results may not provide clear answers to ergogenic questions
May be able to prove ergogenic action
Results often equivocal
Factors that can limit research
Technique, equipment inaccuracy
Research methodology
Testing situations (lab vs. field)

9. World Antidoping Code: Criteria for Prohibited Substance
1. Substance or practice has the potential to enhance sport performance
2. Substance or practice has the potential to harm the athlete
3. Substance or practice violates the spirit of sport

10. Pharmacological Agents
Must know all drugs taken by the athlete
Therapeutic use exemption in advance for certain medical circumstances
Otherwise athletes may forfeit medals, prizes, awards
Check drugs versus banned substances list
Examples: sympathomimetic amines, b-blockers, caffeine, diuretics, recreationally used drugs

11. Pharmacological Agents: Sympathomimetics
Sympathomimetic amines
Amphetamines (also ephedrine, pseudoephedrine)
Medical and ergogenic applications
Proposed benefits of amphetamines
Weight loss
Heighten concentration and focus
Make athletes more competitive, induce sense of being indestructible and euphoria
Enhance performance, delay fatigue

12. Pharmacological Agents: Sympathomimetics
Proven effects of amphetamines
–  State of arousal, energy, self-confidence
–  Fatigue
–  HR, blood pressure, blood flow, blood glucose, FFAs
Enhance performance by
–  Weight loss
Improving reaction time, speed, and focus
–  Strength, power
–  Max HR, peak lactate

13. Pharmacological Agents: Sympathomimetics
Risks of amphetamines, ephedrine
Death, toxicity
Heatstroke, cardiac stress
Addiction (psychological, physiological)
Masking of physiological danger signals
Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine lack benefits but still carry significant risks

14. Pharmacological Agents: b-blockers
• b-blockers reduce sympathetic effects
Used to treat cardiovascular disease
Also for migraines, anxiety, stage fright
Proposed benefits of b-blockers
Decrease performance anxiety
Enhance physical steadiness

15. Pharmacological Agents: b-blockers
Proven effects of b-blockers
–  Resting, submaximal, and maximal HR
–  Hand stability
Risks of b-blockers
Bronchospasm in asthmatics
Cardiac failure, low blood pressure/dizziness
Hypoglycemia (type II diabetics)
Fatigue, impaired performance

16. Pharmacological Agents: Caffeine
Central nervous system stimulant
Sympathomimetic effects (but weaker)
Proposed benefits of caffeine
–  Mental alertness, feel more competitive
More energy, reduced or delayed fatigue
Enhanced mobilization of FFAs
Glycogen sparing

17. Pharmacological Agents: Caffeine
Proven effects of caffeine
–  Alertness, concentration, and mood
–  Fatigue and reaction time (faster response)
–  Fat metabolism
–  All types of performance
Risks of caffeine
Nervousness, tremors, insomnia
Headache
GI problems

18. Pharmacological Agents: Diuretics
Diuretic clinical uses
Increase urine production to reduce body water
Control hypertension, edema
Proposed benefits of diuretics
Weight control
Dilute other banned substances in urine samples

19. Pharmacological Agents: Diuretics
Proven effects of diuretics
Significant temporary weight loss
Resulting dehydration is ergolytic
–  Plasma volume   Qmax   VO2max
Risks of diuretics
Impaired thermoregulation
Electrolyte imbalance (including hyponatremia)
Death

20. Pharmacological Agents: Recreational Drugs
Alcohol, cocaine, marijuana, nicotine
No ergogenic effects
Many ergolytic effects
Alcohol + caffeine = ergolytic effects

21. Hormonal Agents: Anabolic Steroids
Anabolic steroid use
Androgenic: similar to male sex hormones
Enhances anabolic function (builds bone, muscle)
Athletes have become good at avoiding detection
Proposed benefits of anabolic steroids
Increased fat-free mass (FFM), strength
Reduced fat mass
Facilitate recovery after exhaustive exercise

22. Hormonal Agents: Anabolic Steroids
Proven effects on muscle mass, strength
–  body mass, FFM
–  Fat mass
–  Total body potassium and nitrogen (FFM markers)
–  Muscle size, strength
Dose threshold for anabolic effects
Small doses ineffective
Large, chronic doses very effective

23. Figure 16.2

24. Figure 16.3

25. Hormonal Agents: Anabolic Steroids
High-dose testosterone  same effects
–  FFM
–  Triceps and quadriceps area
–  Strength
Muscle mass increase is dose dependent
–  Type I and type II cross-sectional area
–  Number of muscle fiber nuclei

26. Figure 16.4

27. Hormonal Agents: Anabolic Steroids
Proven effects on cardiorespiratory endurance
–  Red blood cell production and total blood volume
No effect on VO2max
Proven effects on recovery from training
–  muscle fiber damage after exhaustive lifting
–  Rate of protein synthesis during recovery (rats)

28. Hormonal Agents: Anabolic Steroids
Issues with anabolic steroid use
Moral and ethical concerns
Fair competition (basis for World Anti-Doping Code)
Sexual risks
Men: early growth stoppage, supression of normal hormones (testicular abnormalities), excess estrogen (breast enlargement)
Women: disrupted menstruation/ovulation, development of masculine sex characteristics

29. Hormonal Agents: Anabolic Steroids
Cancer risks: prostate, liver
Cardiovascular risks
Cardiac hypertrophy, cardiomyopathy, heart attack
Thrombosis, arrhythmia, hypertension
–  HDL,  LDL

30. Hormonal Agents: Anabolic Steroids
Emotional and psychological risks
–  Aggression (“roid rage”)
–  Violence
Potential drug dependence
Other risks
Contracting hepatitis, HIV/AIDS
–  Life span (mice)
–  Incidence of birth defects
Long-term effects of abuse unknown

31. Hormonal Agents: Andro, DHEA
Baseball steroids scandal
Androstenedione (Mark McGwire) purported to enhance testosterone production
DHEA may enhance androstenedione, testosterone
Studies generally show andro and DHEA ineffective
No significant strength gains
Possible increase in estrogen
Banned anabolic steroids more effective, popular

32. Hormonal Agents: Human Growth Hormone
Human growth hormone (hGH)
Six proposed benefits of hGH use
Stimulates protein, nucleic acid synthesis
Stimulates bone growth (young athletes)
Stimulates IGF-1 synthesis
–  FFA mobilization,  fat mass
–  Blood glucose levels
Enhances healing after injury

33. Hormonal Agents: Human Growth Hormone
Proven effects of hGH use
–  Fat mass
Young athletes: no anabolic effects
Older men:  FFM,  bone density
Risks of hGH use
Acromegaly
Cardiomyopathy, hypertension
Glucose intolerance/diabetes

34. Physiological Agents
Using any substance that occurs naturally in body to improve performance
Five major physiological agents
Blood doping
Erythropoietin (EPO)
O2 supplementation
Bicarbonate loading
Phosphate loading

35. Physiological Agents: Blood Doping
Any means by which red blood cell count increases
Often through transfusion of previously donated red blood cells
Proposed benefits of blood doping
Enhanced oxygen-carrying capacity
Improved aerobic endurance and performance
Proven effects of blood doping
–  VO2max (long term)
–  Aerobic endurance (short term)

36. Figure 16.5

37. Physiological Agents: Blood Doping
Maximizing benefits of blood doping
Must reinfuse 900+ ml whole blood
Must wait 5 to 6 weeks before reinfusion
Must freeze (not refrigerate) stored blood
Blood doping and endurance performance
Enhances aerobic performance
Benefit more evident in second half of race

38. Figure 16.6

39. Physiological Agents: Blood Doping
Risks of blood doping
Blood becomes too viscous
Excessive clotting, heart failure
Some sports set hematocrit limits for competition
Blood matching complications
Exposure to bloodborne diseases
Potential medical risks far outweigh benefits

40. Physiological Agents: EPO
EPO slightly different from blood doping
Natural kidney hormone
Stimulates red blood cell production
Proposed benefits of EPO
Increased hematocrit
Increased oxygen-carrying capacity
Proven effects of EPO
–  Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and VO2max
–  Time to exhaustion

41. Physiological Agents: EPO
Risks of EPO use
Dangerous increase in blood viscosity
Blood clots, heart attack, heart failure, stroke
Pulmonary embolism, hypertension
Effects of EPO less predictable than those of red blood cell reinfusion

42. Physiological Agents: O2 Supplementation
Proposed benefits of O2 supplementation
Increase dissolved oxygen in blood
Delay fatigue, speed recovery
Proven effects of O2 supplementation
Preexercise treatment  little or no effect
During exercise   work, work rate, metabolic efficiency,  peak blood lactate levels
After exercise  no effect

43. Physiological Agents: O2 Supplementation
Risks of O2 supplementation
No known risks
Safety needs further research
Oxygen equipment potentially dangerous
Overall, simply not practical

44. Physiological Agents: Bicarbonate Loading
Proposed benefits of bicarbonate loading
Increased blood pH and buffering capacity
Delayed onset of anaerobic fatigue
Proven effects of bicarbonate loading
300 mg/kg   all-out performance for 1 to 7 min
Enhanced H+ removal from muscle fibers
Risks of bicarbonate loading
GI discomfort (bloating, cramping)
Sodium citrate  similar results without risks

45. Figure 16.7

46. Physiological Agents: Phosphate Loading
Proposed benefits of phosphate loading
Enhanced PCr resynthesis
Enhanced oxidative phosphorylation
Greater O2 unloading at muscle
Proven effects of phosphate loading
Findings equivocal
Some studies no effects, others  V̇O2max and time to exhaustion
No known risks of phosphate loading

47. Nutritional Agents: Amino Acids
L-tryptophan
Proposed effects: analgesic, delays fatigue
Proven effects: no improvement
Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs)
Proposed effects: delay fatigue
– Study showed no effect from  or  BCAAs
HMB (leucine metabolite)
– Some evidence may  FFM, strength but unclear
– Decreases cholesterol, LDL, blood pressure

48. Figure 16.8

49. Nutritional Agents: L-Carnitine
Proposed benefits of L-carnitine
Enhanced fatty acid oxidation
Glycogen sparing
Proven effects of L-carnitine
Conflicting results
Most findings negative

50. Nutritional Agents: Creatine
Widespread use (recreational to professional)
Target: skeletal muscle
Proposed benefits of creatine
Increased muscle PCr content
Enhanced peak power production
Serves as buffer, helps regulate pH balance
Enhanced oxidative metabolic pathways

51. Nutritional Agents: Creatine
ACSM conclusions regarding creatine
Enhances high-power-output activity
Maximal strength not affected
With resistance training  strength gains
Results do not live up to expectations
Creatine + exercise =  FFM, strength
May not improve performance

52. Nutritional Agents: Contamination of Supplements
Supplement marketing and labeling not overseen by FDA
Purity of supplements and accuracy of supplement labels suspect
Contamination with banned substances can lead to disqualification, forfeit of medals