1. Combined Heat and Power

2. Carbon footprint - Of heat and various combined heat and power schemes, heat pumps, etc.
The previous table gives the carbon footprint per kilowatt-hour of electricity generated, which is about half the world's man-made CO2 output. The CO2 footprint for heat is equally significant and research shows that using waste heat from power generation in combined heat and power district heating, chp/dh has the lowest carbon footprint. much lower than micro-power or heat pumps.

3. District heating - District heat from combined heat and power or simple combustion
Additionally a cogeneration plant (also called combined heat and power, CHP) is often added in parallel with the boilers

4. District heating - District heat from combined heat and power or simple combustion
In the case of a fossil fueled cogeneration plant, the heat output is typically sized to meet half of the peak heat load but over the year will provide 90% of the heat supplied. The boiler capacity will be able to meet the entire heat demand unaided and can cover for breakdowns in the cogeneration plant. It is not economic to size the cogeneration plant alone to be able to meet the full heat load.

5. District heating - District heat from combined heat and power or simple combustion
The combination of cogeneration and district heating is very efficient energy use|energy efficient. A simple thermal power station can be 20–35% efficient, whereas a more advanced facility with the ability to recover waste heat can reach total energy efficiency of nearly 80%.

6. District heating - District heat from combined heat and power or simple combustion
Waste heat from nuclear power plants is sometimes used for district heating. The principles for a conventional combination of cogeneration and district heating applies the same for nuclear as it does for a thermal power station. Russia has several cogeneration nuclear plants which together provided 11.4 PJ of district heat in Russian nuclear district heating is planned to nearly triple within a decade as new plants are built.

7. District heating - District heat from combined heat and power or simple combustion
Other nuclear-powered heating from cogeneration plants are in the Ukraine, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Switzerland, producing up to about 100MW per power station. One use of nuclear heat generation was with the Ågesta Nuclear Power Plant in Sweden closed in 1974.

8. District heating - District heat from combined heat and power or simple combustion
In Switzerland, the Beznau Nuclear Power Plant provides heat to about 20,000 people.SUGIYAMA KEN'ICHIRO (Hokkaido Univ.) et al. [ / A php Nuclear District Heating: The Swiss Experience]

9. Micro combined heat and power
'Micro combined heat and power' or 'micro-CHP' is an extension of the now well established idea of cogeneration to the single/multi family home or small office building.

10. Micro combined heat and power - Overview
A micro-CHP system is a small heat engine (power plant) which provides all the power for an individual building; HVAC|heating, ventilation, and air conditioning, mechanical energy and electric power

11. Micro combined heat and power - Overview
However, it is not practical to transport heat long distances, due to heat loss from the pipes. Since electricity can be transported practically, it is more efficient to generate the electricity near where the waste heat can be used. So in a micro-combined heat and power system (micro-CHP), small power plants are instead located where the secondary heat can be used, in individual buildings. Micro-CHP are defined by the EC as being of less than 50kW electrical power output.

12. Micro combined heat and power - Overview
In a central power plant, the supply of waste heat may exceed the local heat demand. In such cases, if it is not desirable to reduce the power production, the excess waste heat must be disposed in e.g. cooling towers or sea cooling without being used. A way to avoid excess waste heat is to reduce the fuel input to the CHP plant, reducing both the heat and power output to balance the heat demand. In doing this, the power production is limited by the heat demand.

13. Micro combined heat and power - Overview
CHP systems are able to increase the total energy utilization of primary energy sources, such as fuel and concentrated solar thermal energy. Thus CHP has been steadily gaining popularity in all sectors of the energy economy, due to the increased costs of fuels, particularly oil-based fuels, and due to environmental concerns, particularly climate change.

14. Micro combined heat and power - Overview
In a traditional power plant delivering electricity to consumers, about 30% of the heat content of the primary heat energy source, such as biomass, coal, solar thermal, natural gas, petroleum or nuclear power|uranium, reaches the consumer, although the efficiency can be 20% for very old plants and 45% for newer gas plants

15. Micro combined heat and power - Overview
CHP systems have benefited the industrial sector since the beginning of the industrial revolution

16. Micro combined heat and power - Overview
Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the fuel cell micro-combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012.[ The fuel cell industry review 2013]

17. Micro combined heat and power - Overview
PEMFC fuel cell mCHP operates at low temperature (50 to 100 °C) and needs high purity hydrogen, its prone to contamination, changes are made to operate at higher temperatures and improvements on the fuel reformer

18. Micro combined heat and power - Overview
CHP systems linked to absorption chillers can use waste heat for refrigeration.[ Fuel Cells and CHP]

19. Micro combined heat and power - Micro-CHP systems
In many cases industrial CHP systems primarily electricity generation|generate electricity and heat is a by-product; micro-CHP systems in homes or small commercial buildings are controlled by heat-demand, delivering electricity as the by-product. When used primarily for heat in circumstances of fluctuating electrical demand, micro-CHP systems will often generate more electricity than is instantly being demanded.

20. Micro combined heat and power - Micro-CHP systems
To date, micro-CHP systems achieve much of their savings, and thus attractiveness to consumers, through a generate-and-resell or net metering model wherein home-generated power exceeding the instantaneous in-home needs is sold back to the electrical utility

21. Micro combined heat and power - Micro-CHP systems
Another positive to net-metering is the fact that it is fairly easy to configure

22. Micro combined heat and power - Micro-CHP systems
While net-metering is a very efficient mechanism for using excess energy generated by a micro-CHP system, it does have detractors

23. Micro combined heat and power - Micro-CHP systems
In an evaluation from 2008 by Claverton Energy Group, Stirling engined micro CHP was deemed the most cost effective of the various microgeneration technologies in abating carbon in the UK.[ What is microgeneration? Jeremy Harrison, Claverton Energy Group Conference, Bath, Oct 24th 2008]

24. Micro combined heat and power - Micro-CHP systems
A 2013 UK report from Ecuity Consulting stated that MCHP is the most cost-effective method of utilising gas to generate energy at the domestic level.[ The role of micro CHP in a smart energy world][ Micro CHP report powers heated discussion about UK energy future]

25. Micro combined heat and power - Engine types and technologies
Micro-CHP engine systems are currently based on several different technologies:

26. Micro combined heat and power - Engine types and technologies
* Internal combustion engines

27. Micro combined heat and power - Engine types and technologies
* Steam engines (using either the traditional water or Organic Rankine cycle|organic chemicals such as refrigerants)

28. Micro combined heat and power - Fuels and engine types
The majority of cogeneration systems use natural gas for fuel, because natural gas burns easily and cleanly, it can be inexpensive, it is available in most areas and is easily transported through pipelines, which already exist for many homes

29. Micro combined heat and power - Fuels and engine types
The future of combined heat and power, particularly for homes and small businesses, will continue to be affected by the price of fuel, including natural gas. As fuel prices continue to climb, this will make the economics more favorable for energy conservation measures, and more efficient energy use, including CHP and micro-CHP.

30. Micro combined heat and power - Fuels
There are many types of fuels and sources of heat that may be considered for micro-CHP

31. Micro combined heat and power - Engines
External combustion engines can run on any high-temperature heat source. These engines include the Stirling engine, hot gas turbocharger, steam engine. Both range from 10%-20% efficiency, and as of 2008, small quantities are in production for micro-CHP products.

32. Micro combined heat and power - Engines
Other possibilities include the Organic Rankine cycle, which operates at lower temperatures and pressures using low-grade heat sources

33. Micro combined heat and power - Thermoelectrics
Thermoelectric generators operating on the Seebeck Effect show promise due to their total absence of moving parts. Efficiency, however, is the major concern as most thermoelectric devices fail to achieve 5% efficiency even with high temperature differences.

34. Micro combined heat and power - CPVT
This can be achieved by Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector, another option is 'Concentrated photovoltaics and thermal' ('CPVT'), also sometimes called 'combined heat and power solar' ('CHAPS'), is a cogeneration technology used in concentrated photovoltaics that produce both electricity and heat in the same module. The heat may be employed in district heating, water heating and solar cooling|air conditioning, desalination or process heat.

35. Micro combined heat and power - CPVT
CPVT systems are currently in production in Europe, with Zenith Solar developing CPVT systems with a claimed efficiency of 72%.

36. Micro combined heat and power - CPVT
Sopogy produces a micro CSP|Concentrated solar system (microCSP) system based on parabolic trough which can be installed above building or homes, the heat can be used for water heating or solar air conditioning, a steam turbine can also be installed to produce electricity.

37. Micro combined heat and power - CHP+PV
The recent development of small scale CHP systems has provided the opportunity for in-house power backup of residential-scale photovoltaic (PV) arrays.J.

38. Micro combined heat and power - CHP+PV
Pearce, “Expanding Photovoltaic Penetration with Residential Distributed Generation from Hybrid Solar Photovoltaic + Combined Heat and Power Systems”, Energy '34', pp

39. Micro combined heat and power - CHP+PV
In some regions, in order to reduce waste from excess heat, an absorption chiller has been proposed to utilize the CHP-produced thermal energy for cooling of PV-CHP system.A.

40. Micro combined heat and power - Japan
The largest deployment of micro-CHP is in Japan in 2009 where over 90,000 units in place, with the vast majority being of Hondas ECO-WILL type.[ Micro CHP in Japan] Six Japanese energy companies launched the 300W–1kW PEMFC/SOFC ENE FARM [ Japan mchp][ FCgen-1030V3] product in 2009, with 3,000 installed units in 2008, a production target of 150,000 units for 2009–2010 and a target of 2,500,000 units in 2030.[ ENE FARM residential fuel cells launched] Per December 2012 Panasonic and Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd

41. Micro combined heat and power - South Korea
In South Korea subsidies will start at 80 percent of the cost of a domestic fuel cell.,.[ South Korea unveils 80 per cent subsidy for domestic fuel cells] The Renewable portfolio standard program with Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)|renewable energy certificates runs from 2012 to 2022.[ RD status and prospects on fuel cells in Korea]

42. Micro combined heat and power - South Korea
Quota systems favor large, vertically integrated generators and multinational electric utilities, if only because certificates are generally denominated in units of one megawatt-hour

43. Micro combined heat and power - South Korea
Ljubljana Conference on the Future of GHG Emissions Trading in the EU, March Salzburg, Austria: University of Salzburg. Retrieved 16 March 2009 at:

44. Micro combined heat and power - South Korea
Around 350 residential mCHP units where installed in 2012.[ The fuel cell industry review 2012]

45. Micro combined heat and power - South Korea
PEMFC by GS Group|GS FuelCell,[ GS Fuelcell Co., Ltd] FuelCell Powers CellVille,[ FuelCell Power] Hyundai Hysco, IHI Corporation|IHI and Hyosung,[ Hyosung’s 1kW low temperature PEMFC System] SOFC by KEPRI,[ Kepri] LS Group|LS Industrial Systems (from ClearEdge Power), Samsung Everland (ClearEdge Power), Molten carbonate fuel cell|MCFC by POSCO Energy (FuelCell Energy) [ Initial stage of commercialization of residential fuel cells in Korea] and Doosan Heavy Industries Construction|Doosan.

46. Micro combined heat and power - Europe
The European public–private partnership Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative|Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development|Seventh Framework Programme project ene.field deploys in 2017[ 5th stakeholders general assembly of the FCH JU] up 1,000 residential fuel cell Combined Heat and Power (micro-CHP) installations in 12 states

47. Micro combined heat and power - Germany
In Germany, 3,000 ecopower micro-CHP units have been installed, using the U.S

48. Micro combined heat and power - The Netherlands
The micro-CHP subsidy was ended in To test the effects of mCHP on a smart grid, 45 natural gas SOFC units (each 1,5 kWh) from Republiq Power (Ceramic Fuel Cells) will be placed on Ameland in 2013 to function as a virtual power plant.

49. Micro combined heat and power - UK
It is estimated that about 1,000 micro-CHP systems were in operation in the UK as of 2002

50. Micro combined heat and power - UK
The market is supported by the government through regulatory work, and some government research money expended through the Energy Saving Trust and The Carbon Trust|Carbon Trust, which are public bodies supporting energy efficiency in the UK.[ CHP–The microgeneration boom?] Effective as of 7 April 2005, the UK government has cut the VAT from 20% to 5% for micro-CHP systems, in order to support demand for this emerging technology at the expense of existing, less environmentally friendly technology

51. Micro combined heat and power - UK
Two fuel cell varieties of mCHP co-generation units are almost ready for mainstream production and are planned for release to commercial markets in early in With the UK Government's Feed-In-Tariff available for a 10 year period, a wide uptake of the technology is anticipated.[

52. Micro combined heat and power - United States
In 2007, the United States company Climate Energy of Massachusetts introduced the Freewatt,[ ANnalysis of data collected for the Freewatt microCHP system in Syracuse, NY] a micro-CHP system based on a Honda MCHP engine bundled with a gas furnace (for warm air systems) or boiler (for hydronic or forced hot water heating systems)

53. Micro combined heat and power - United States
Trenergi Corp, Massachusetts, an early stage company, in June 2010, announced its Trion residential, high-temperature (300 F) micro-CHP that operates on both gas and oil, demonstrating combined heat and electrical power efficiencies of up to 90%. Their first products will be 1, 3, and 5kW units.[ Trenergi completes Cleantech residential CHP solution proof of concept]

54. Micro combined heat and power - Research
Testing is underway in Ameland, the Netherlands for a three year field testing until 2010 of HCNG were 20% hydrogen is added to the local Compressed natural gas|CNG distribution net, the appliances involved are kitchen stoves condensing boilers and micro-CHP boilers.[ Micro-CHP][ Ameland Field testing]

55. Micro combined heat and power - Research
Micro-CHP Accelerator, a field trial performed between 2005 and 2008, studied the performance of 87 Stirling engine and internal combustion engine devices in residential houses in the UK.

56. Micro combined heat and power - Research
This study found that the devices resulted in average carbon savings of 9% for houses with heat demand over 54 GJ/year.

57. Micro combined heat and power - Research
An ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) paper fully describes the performance and operating

58. Micro combined heat and power - Research
and Power units which were in operation from 1979

59. Micro combined heat and power - Research
The first unit was an automatic coal fired steam electric

60. Micro combined heat and power - Research
1979, operating with a steam turbine-generator for two

61. Micro combined heat and power - Research
years, and was modified with a reciprocating uniflow expander

62. Micro combined heat and power - Research
functioned reliably, with only four forced outages during

63. Micro combined heat and power - Research
the four years of operation.

64. Micro combined heat and power - Research
EXPERIENCE WITH EARLY DISTRIBUTED GENERATION SYSTEMS

65. Fossil-fuel power station - Combined heat and power
Combined heat and power (CHP), also known as cogeneration, is the use of a power station to provide both electric power and process heat or district heating

66. Vegetable oil fuel - Combined heat and power
A number of companies offer diesel engines|compressed ignition engine generators optimized to run on plant oils where the waste engine heat is recovered for heating.

67. Low-carbon economy - Combined Heat and Power
Cogeneration|Combined Heat and Power (CHP) is a technology which by allowing the more efficient use of fuel will at least reduce carbon emissions; should the fuel be biomass or biogas or hydrogen used as an energy store then in principle it can be a zero carbon option. CHP can also be used with a nuclear reactor as the energy source, there are examples of such installations in the far North of the Russian Federation.

68. Biomass heating system - Combined heat and power
Combined heat and power systems are very useful systems in which wood waste, such as wood chips, is used to generate power, and heat is created as a byproduct of the power generation system

69. Biomass heating system - Combined heat and power
There are certain situations where CHP is a good option. Wood product manufacturers would use a combined heat and power system because they have a large supply of waste wood, and a need for both heat and power. Other places where these systems would be optimal are hospitals and prisons, which need energy, and heat for hot water. These systems are sized so that they will produce enough heat to match the average heat load so that no additional heat is needed, and a cooling tower is not needed.

70. Stationary fuel cell applications - Micro combined heat and power
Micro combined heat and power , 'mCHP' or 'Micro cogeneration is a so-called Distributed Energy Resource|distributed energy resource (DER)

71. Stationary fuel cell applications - Micro combined heat and power
Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the fuel cell micro-combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012.[ The fuel cell industry review 2013] units where sold in Japan in 2012 overall within the Ene Farm project

72. Refrigeration cycle - Comparison with Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
A heat pump may be compared with a CHP unit, in that for a condensing steam plant, as it switches to produced heat, then electrical power is lost or becomes unavailable, just as the power used in a heat pump becomes unavailable

73. District heating - District heat from combined heat and power or simple combustion
Additionally a cogeneration plant (also called combined heat and power, CHP) is often added in parallel with the boilers

74. Micro combined heat and power
'Micro combined heat and power' or 'micro-CHP' is an extension of the idea of cogeneration to the single/multi family home or small office building.

75. Micro combined heat and power - CHP+PV
Pearce, “Expanding Photovoltaic Penetration with Residential Distributed Generation from Hybrid Solar Photovoltaic + Combined Heat and Power Systems”, Energy '34', pp

76. Micro combined heat and power - Japan
The largest deployment of micro-CHP is in Japan in 2009 where over 90,000 units in place, with the vast majority being of Hondas ECO-WILL type.[ Micro CHP in Japan] Six Japanese energy companies launched the 300W–1kW PEMFC/SOFC ENE FARM [ Japan mchp][ FCgen-1030V3] product in 2009, with 3,000 installed units in 2008, a production target of 150,000 units for 2009–2010 and a target of 2,500,000 units in 2030.[ ENE FARM residential fuel cells launched] Per December 2012 Panasonic and Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd

77. Micro combined heat and power - South Korea
PEMFC by GS Group|GS FuelCell,[ GS Fuelcell Co., Ltd] FuelCell Power (now Doosan),[ FuelCell Power] Hyundai Hysco, IHI Corporation|IHI and Hyosung,[ Hyosung’s 1kW low temperature PEMFC System] SOFC by KEPRI,[ Kepri] LS Group|LS Industrial Systems (from ClearEdge Power), Samsung Everland (ClearEdge Power), Molten carbonate fuel cell|MCFC by POSCO Energy (FuelCell Energy) [ Initial stage of commercialization of residential fuel cells in Korea] and Doosan Heavy Industries Construction|Doosan.

78. Micro combined heat and power - Germany
In Germany, 3,000 ecopower micro-CHP units have been installed, using the U.S

79. Micro combined heat and power - Research
for an additional two years operation. The unit

80. Woodchips - Micro Combined heat and power
Wood is occasionally used to power engines, such as steam engines, Stirling engines, and Otto engines running on woodgas

81. Micro combined heat and power - Overview
PEMFC fuel cell mCHP operates at low temperature (50 to 100°C) and needs high purity hydrogen, its prone to contamination, changes are made to operate at higher temperatures and improvements on the fuel reformer

82. Micro combined heat and power - PEMFC
*Per December 2012 Panasonic and Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd. sold about 21,000 PEM Ene-Farm units in Japan for a price of $22,600 before installation.[ Launch of new 'Ene-Farm' home fuel cell product more affordable and easier to install][ Features of the Panasonic household fuel cell]

83. Micro combined heat and power - PEMFC
*Toshiba and Osaka Gas Co Ltd / Nichigas[ Nichigas Ene Farm] installed 6,500 PEM ENE FARM units (manufactured by Chofu Seisakusho Co Ltd[ Toshiba revamps 'Ene Farm' residential fuel cell] ) per nov 2011.[ Toshiba revamps 'Ene Farm' residential fuel cell]

84. Micro combined heat and power - SOFC
*In the middle of 2012 JX Nippon Oil Co.Sanyo and Seibu Gas Energy Co sold around 4000 SOFC Ene Farm units.[ The latest news number 196, 2012 FCDIC ]

85. Micro combined heat and power - SOFC
*Aisin Seiki in combination with Osaka Gas, Kyocera, Toyota and Chofu Seisakusho started in April 2012 with the sales of the SOFC ENE-FARM Type S for around $33,500 before installation.[ ENE-FARM Type S]

86. Micro combined heat and power - South Korea
*PEMFC by GS Group|GS FuelCell,[ GS Fuelcell Co., Ltd] FuelCell Power, [ FuelCell Power] Hyundai Hysco, IHI Corporation|IHI and Hyosung,[ Hyosung’s 1kW low temperature PEMFC System]

87. Micro combined heat and power - South Korea
*SOFC by KEPRI,[ Kepri] LS Group|LS Industrial Systems (from ClearEdge Power), Samsung Everland (ClearEdge Power).

88. Micro combined heat and power - South Korea
*Molten carbonate fuel cell|MCFC by POSCO Energy (FuelCell Energy) [ Initial stage of commercialization of residential fuel cells in Korea] and Doosan Heavy Industries Construction|Doosan.

89. Micro combined heat and power - South Korea
*PAFC Doosan Fuel Cell America

90. Micro combined heat and power - Germany
In Germany, 3,000 ecopower micro-CHP units have been installed, using the U.S

91. Micro combined heat and power - SOFC
*Ceramic Fuel Cells installs until 2014 up to 100 SOFC units under the SOFT-PACT[ Solid oxide fuel cell micro-CHP field trials] project with E.ON in Germany and the UK. A factory in Heinsberg, Germany for the production of SOFC based micro-CHP units started in June 2009 to produce 10,000 two-kilowatt units per year.[ Ceramic fuel cells]

92. Micro combined heat and power - SOFC
*Vaillant Group|Vaillant (Sunfire SOFC[ Sunfire])

93. Micro combined heat and power - UK
It is estimated that about 1,000 micro-CHP systems were in operation in the UK as of 2002

94. Micro combined heat and power - PEMFC
In early 2012 less than kWe Baxi-Innotech [ BAXI-Innotech] PEM micro-CHP units from BDR Thermea where installed [ Micro-CHP Japan continues to lead as fuel cell units emerge]

95. Micro combined heat and power - SOFC
*A Ceres Power factory in Horsham UK for the production of SOFC based micro-CHP units is expected to start low-volume production in the second half of 2009.[ Ceres Power signs fuel cell CHP assembly deal with Daalderop]

96. NGK - Micro combined heat and power
NKG is a manufacturer of SOFC fuel cell micro combined heat and power units in the range 700W - 1 Kw.[ Development of SOFC for residential use]

97. Combined Heat and Power Association
The 'Combined Heat and Power Association' is an energy organisation based in the United Kingdom.

98. Combined Heat and Power Association - Structure
It is situated on Dean Farrar Street, near St. James Park Underground station.

99. Combined Heat and Power Association - Members
Members of the CHPA include:

100. Combined Heat and Power Association - Members
* University of Warwick

101. Combined Heat and Power Association - Function
It supports companies involved in cogeneration, which is sometimes referred to as district heating, whereby waste heat from power generation is used for heating. Smaller units are referred to as Micro combined heat and power|MicroCHP.

102. Combined Heat and Power Association - Function
Many CHP schemes in the UK are found in hotels, hospitals, universities and leisure centres. The largest CHP plant in Europe is the Immingham Power Station.

103. Combined Heat and Power Association - History
It was founded in 1967 as the District Heating Association.

104. Micro combined heat and power
'Micro combined heat and power' or 'micro-CHP' is an extension of the idea of cogeneration to the single/multi family home or small office building in the range 0, Kilowatt|kW. Local generation has a higher efficiency as it lacks the 8-10 % energy losses when transporting electricity over long distances and the % energy losses on long distance heat transfer due to the difference between the hot energy carrier (water) and the colder external environment.

105. Micro combined heat and power - Overview
In many cases CHP systems primarily electricity generation|generate electricity and heat is a by-product; micro-CHP systems in homes or small commercial buildings are controlled by heat-demand, delivering electricity as the by-product. When used primarily for heat in circumstances of fluctuating electrical demand, micro-CHP systems will often generate more electricity than is instantly being demanded.

106. Micro combined heat and power - Overview
CHP systems linked to absorption chillers can use waste heat for refrigeration.[ Tri-Generation success story]

107. Micro combined heat and power - Technologies
* Steam engine/Steam motor (using either the traditional water or Organic Rankine cycle|organic chemicals such as refrigerants)

108. Micro combined heat and power - Fuel cell micro-CHP
Fuel cells generate electricity and heat as a by product. The advantages for a stationary fuel cell applications|stationary fuel cell application over stirling CHP are no moving parts, less maintenance, and quieter operation. The surplus electricity can be delivered back to the grid.[ Integration of fuel cell micro-CHPs on low voltage grid: A Danish case study]

109. Micro combined heat and power - Fuel cell micro-CHP
As an example, a PEMFC fuel cell based micro-CHP has an electrical efficiency of 37% Lower heating value|LHV and 33% Higher heating value|HHV and a heat recovery efficiency of 52% LHV and 47% HHV with a service life of 40,000 hours or 4000 start/stop cycles which is equal to 10 year use.

110. Micro combined heat and power - Fuel cell micro-CHP
In 2013 Service life|Lifetime is around 60,000 hours. For PEM fuel cell units, which shut down at night, this equates to an estimated lifetime of between ten and fifteen years.[ Latest developments in the Ene-Farm scheme]

111. Micro combined heat and power - Fuel cell micro-CHP
United States Department of Energy|United States Department of Energy (DOE) Technical Targets: 1–10kW residential combined heat and power fuel cells operating on natural gas.[ DOE Distributed/Stationary fuel cell systems]

112. Micro combined heat and power - Fuel cell micro-CHP
|Start-up time from 20°C ambient temperature||60 min ||45 min ||30 min ||20 min

113. Micro combined heat and power - CPVT
CPVT systems are currently in production in Europe,[ Renewable Energy World-Researchers explore hybrid concentrated solar energy system] with Zenith Solar developing CPVT systems with a claimed efficiency of 72%.

114. Micro combined heat and power - Japan
The largest deployment of micro-CHP is in Japan in 2009 where over 90,000 units in place, with the vast majority being of Honda's ECO-WILL type.[ Micro CHP in Japan] Six Japanese energy companies launched the 300W–1kW PEMFC/SOFC ENE FARM [ Japan mchp][ FCgen-1030V3] product in 2009, with 3,000 installed units in 2008, a production target of 150,000 units for 2009–2010 and a target of 2,500,000 units in 2030.[ ENE FARM residential fuel cells launched] 20,000 units where sold in 2012 overall within the Ene Farm project making an estimated total of 50,000 PEMFC and up to 5,000 SOFC installations.[ The IEA CHP and DHC Collaborative] For 2013 a state subsidy for 50,000 units is in place

115. Micro combined heat and power - PEMFC
*Per December 2012, Panasonic and Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd. sold about 21,000 PEM Ene-Farm units in Japan for a price of $22,600 before installation.[ Launch of new 'Ene-Farm' home fuel cell product more affordable and easier to install][ Features of the Panasonic household fuel cell]

116. Micro combined heat and power - PEMFC
*Toshiba and Osaka Gas Co., Ltd./Nichigas[ Nichigas Ene Farm] installed 6,500 PEM ENE FARM units (manufactured by Chofu Seisakusho Co., Ltd,[ Toshiba revamps 'Ene Farm' residential fuel cell] ) per November 2011.[ Toshiba revamps 'Ene Farm' residential fuel cell]

117. Micro combined heat and power - SOFC
*In the middle of 2012, Nippon Oil|JX Nippon Oil Co. Sanyo and Seibu Gas Energy Co. sold around 4,000 SOFC Ene Farm units.[ The latest news number 196, 2012 FCDIC ]

118. Micro combined heat and power - SOFC
*NGK is a manufacturer of 700W-1 Kw mCHP units.[ Development of SOFC for residential use]

119. Micro combined heat and power - SOFC
*Miura Kogyo[ Miura] and Sumitomo Precision Products with a 4.2 Kw unit.

120. Micro combined heat and power - SOFC
*Toto Ltd.[ Toto Ltd]

121. Micro combined heat and power - South Korea
In South Korea, subsidies will start at 80 percent of the cost of a domestic fuel cell.[ South Korea unveils 80 per cent subsidy for domestic fuel cells] The Renewable portfolio standard|Renewable Portfolio Standard program with Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)|renewable energy certificates runs from 2012 to 2022.[ RD status and prospects on fuel cells in Korea]

122. Micro combined heat and power - South Korea
*PEMFC by GS Group|GS FuelCell,[ GS Fuelcell Co., Ltd] FuelCell Power,[ FuelCell Power] Hyundai Hysco[ Hyundai Hysco] Joint venture|JV with Plug Power, IHI Corporation|IHI and Hyosung,[ Hyosung’s 1kW low temperature PEMFC System]

123. Micro combined heat and power - Germany
In Germany, 3,000 ecopower micro-CHP units have been installed, using the U.S

124. Micro combined heat and power - PEMFC
*Viessmann (Panasonic)[ Number FDIC -Viesmann-Panasonic]

125. Micro combined heat and power - PEMFC
*Elcore,[ Elcore - Elcomax ] a 300W addon.[ Handling the cost of residential fuel cells]

126. Micro combined heat and power - PEMFC
*Tropical (vehicles)|Tropical [ Tropical]

127. Micro combined heat and power - PEMFC
*Riesaer Brennstoffzellentechnik GmbH (Inhouse Engineering)[ Inhouse]

128. Micro combined heat and power - SOFC
*Center for Fuel Cell Technology (ZBT) (Nippon Oil|JX Nippon)[ ZBT]

129. Micro combined heat and power - SOFC
*Vaillant Group|Vaillant (Sunfire/Staxera)[ Sunfire]

130. Micro combined heat and power - SOFC
*Buderus/Junkers - Bosch Thermotechnik (Aisin Seiki)[ Buderus Logapower FC10 energy centre supplies both heat and electricity]

131. Micro combined heat and power - PEMFC
*In early 2012 less than kWe Baxi-Innotech [ BAXI-Innotech] PEM micro-CHP units from BDR Thermea where installed [ Micro-CHP Japan continues to lead as fuel cell units emerge]

132. Micro combined heat and power - Denmark
The Danish mCHP project 2007 to 2014 with 30 units is on the island of Lolland and in the western town Varde.[ Demonstration of micro CHP based on Danish fuel cells] Denmark is currently part of the Ene.field project.

133. Micro combined heat and power - United States
*AFC Doosan Fuel Cell America

134. Micro combined heat and power - Research
Testing is underway in Ameland, the Netherlands for a three year field testing until 2010 of HCNG were 20% hydrogen is added to the local Compressed natural gas|CNG distribution net, the appliances involved are kitchen stoves, condensing boilers, and micro-CHP boilers.[ Micro-CHP][ Ameland Field testing]

135. For More Information, Visit:
The Art of Service