1. (Finite domain) constraint logic programming Andy King a.m.king@kent.ac.uk http://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/~amk/ With thanks to the Mark Wallace, Joachim Schimpf, Warwick Harvey, Andrew Cheadle, Andrew Sadler for use of their ECLiPSe material. Slides originally adapted from notes of Micha Meier http://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/systems/LOCAL-ONLY/ software/eclipse/win32/ http://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/systems/LOCAL-ONLY/ software/eclipse/linux-i386/

2. Logical course structure zThis overview zConstraint satisfaction problems (CSPs) zBounds propagation, search and optimisation techniques zModeling problems with reified constraints

3. CLP applications zFleet assignment – the assignment of a set of aircraft of different types to a predefined schedule of flights zJob-shop scheduling – a set of jobs and set of machines are given, each job consisting on a partially ordered set of tasks zNurse scheduling – specify which days on and which days off given constraints on personnel policy, nurses’ qualifications and individual requests zInterpreting sloppy stick figures – recognizing drawings with missing model parts and noisy data zSee at PACT, CP, Constraints and the applications page http://www-icparc.doc.ic.ac.uk/eclipse/appl/ zDo not be deceived: constraint solving is usually hidden beneath interface coded in Java.

4. Growth of constraint programming zResults – 64 submissions to ICLP in 2001; 66 submissions to the ICFP in 2001 compared with 135 submissions to CP in 2001 zSystems – AKL, Amulet and Garnet, B-Prolog, Bertrand, CHIP, CPLEX, Cassowary, Cooldraw, Thinglab, ECLiPSe, GNU-Prolog, IF/Prolog, ILOG Solver, Interval Solver for Microsoft Excel, Jsolver, Numerica, Oz, Prolog IV, RISC-CLP(Real), SICStus zLaboratories and startups – CCC, IC-Parc, IF/Computer, ILOG, PrologIA, Vine Solutions, etc

5. Paper and on-line resources zFor ECLiPSe see the “ECLiPSe Constraint Library Manual” in the on-line documentation zKrzysztof Apt, “Principles of Constraint Programming”, Cambridge, 1993 zKim Marriott and Stuckey, “Programming with Constraints”, MIT Press, 1998 zRoman Barták, “On-line Guide to Constraint Programming”, see http://kti.ms.mff.cuni.cz/~bartak/constraints/

6. Commerce versus science “Were you to ask me which programming paradigm is likely to gain most in commercial significance over the next 5 years I’d have to pick Constrained Logic Programming (CLP), even though it’s perhaps currently one of the least known and understood” Dick Pountain BYTE, February 1995 “Constraint programming represents one of the closest approaches computer science has yet made to the Holy Grail of programming: the user states the problem, the computer solves it” Eugene C. Freuder CONSTRAINTS, April 1997

7. Constraint satisfaction problems Chapter 1: the declarative nature of constraint logic programming

8. Constraint satisfaction problems (CSPs) A CSP consists of: za finite set of variables X = {x 1, …, x n }  a domain D that is a mapping {x 1  S 1,…, x n  S n } where each S i is a finite set  a constraint C that is a finite set of primitive constraints C = {c 1, …, c m } where var(c i )  X The CSP is interpreted as the problem of deciding whether C  x 1  D(x 1 )  …  x n  D(x n ) is satisfiable – whether it possesses a solution

9. What is an example CSP? zThe set of variables is X = {WA, NT, Q, NS, SA, V, T}  The domain is D = {WA  {red}, NT  S, …, T  S} where S = {red, yellow, blue} zThe set of constraints is C = {WA  NT, WA  SA, NT  SA, NT  Q, SA  Q, SA  NS, SA  V, Q  NS, NS  V} Colour the regions of a map with a limited number of colours, subject to the condition that no two adjacent regions share the same colour. For instance, consider the CSP which encodes the problem of colouring Australia so that Western Australia is red:

10. Coding the colouring CSP in ECLiPSe :- use_module(library(fd)). colour(Regions) :- Regions = [NT, Q, NS, SA, V, _T], Regions :: 1..3, [WA] :: 1..1, WA #\= NT, WA #\= SA, NT #\= SA, NT #\= Q, SA #\= Q, SA #\= NS, SA #\= V, Q #\= NS, NS #\= V, labeling(Regions). [eclipse 2]: colour(R). R = [2, 1, 2, 3, 1, 1] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; R = [2, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; R = [2, 1, 2, 3, 1, 3] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; R = [3, 1, 3, 2, 1, 1] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; R = [3, 1, 3, 2, 1, 2] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; R = [3, 1, 3, 2, 1, 3] Yes (0.00s cpu)

11. What is another example of a CSP? Crypto-arithmetic problems – puzzles in which digits are replaced with distinct letters of the alphabet or other symbols. Consider the classic SEND, MORE, MONEY puzzle that is due to Dudeney [Strand Magazine, July, 1924] zThe set of variables is X = {S, E, N, D, M, O, R, Y, C 1, C 2, C 3 }  The domain is D = {S  {0,…,9}, …, R  {0,…,9}, C 1  {0,1}, C 2  {0,1}, C 3  {0,1}} zThe set of constraints is C = C P  C A where yC P = {S  E, S  N, S  D, S  M, S  O, S  R, E  N, E  D, E  M, E  O, E  R, N  D, N  M, N  O, N  R, D  M, D  O, D  R, M  O, M  R, O  R} yC A = {D + E = Y + 10C 1, N + R + C 1 = E + 10C 2, E + O + C 2 = N + 10C 3, S + M + C 3 = O + 10M} SEND + MORE MONEY

12. Coding the crypto- arithmetic CSP in ECliPSe :- use_module(library(fd)). crypto(Digits) :- Digits = [S,E,N,D,M,O,R,Y], Digits :: 0..9, Carrys = [C1, C2, C3], Carrys :: 0..1, alldifferent(Digits), D + E #= Y + 10 * C1, N + R + C1 #= E + 10 * C2, E + O + C2 #= N + 10 * C3, S + M + C3 #= O + 10 * M, labeling(Digits). [eclipse 2]: crypto(D). D = [2, 8, 1, 7, 0, 3, 6, 5] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; D = [2, 8, 1, 9, 0, 3, 6, 7] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; D = [3, 7, 1, 2, 0, 4, 6, 9] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; D = [3, 7, 1, 9, 0, 4, 5, 6] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; … 2817 + 0368 03185

13. What is the n-queens problem? zPlace n queens on an n by n chessboard so that none of them can take each other zSolutions and non-solutions for, say, n = 6 are zThere are n 2 !/(n!(n 2 -n)!) possible ways of placing n queens on an n by n board, that is, 1947792 for n = 6            

14. Expressing 6-queens as a CSP zThe set of variables is X = {X 1, …, X 6 } where X i is the column number for the queen in row i zThe assignment X 1 = 2, X 2 = 4 …, X 6 = 5 represents the safe configuration: zThis representation assumes that exactly one queen occurs in each row: yif two queens occurred in the same row then the configuration is a non-solution (take horizontally) yif zero queens occurred in one row, then at least two queens must occur in another row (take horizontally)      

15. Expressing 6-queens as a CSP (cont’) zThe domain is D = {X 1  {1,…,6}, …, X 6  {1,…,6}} zThe set of constraints is C = C P  C D where yC P = {X 1  X 2, X 1  X 3, X 1  X 4, X 1  X 5, X 1  X 6, X 2  X 3, X 2  X 4, X 2  X 5, X 2  X 6, …, X 4  X 5, X 5  X 6 } yThis ensures that queens cannot take vertically yC D = {1  abs(X 1 – X 2 ), 2  abs(X 1 – X 3 ), 3  abs(X 1 – X 4 ), 4  abs(X 1 – X 5 ), 5  abs(X 1 – X 6 ), 1  abs(X 2 – X 3 ), 2  abs(X 2 – X 4 ), 3  abs(X 2 – X 5 ), 4  abs(X 2 – X 6 ), …, 1  abs(X 5 – X 6 )} yThis ensures that queens cannot take diagonally

16. Taking diagonally revisited zSuppose the X 1 = 2 zConsider those X 2 which are unsafe relative to X 1 : zIn either case 1 = abs(X 1 – X 2 ), hence require 1  abs(X 1 – X 2 )       zSuppose the X 5 = 3 zConsider those X 3 which are unsafe relative to X 5 : zIn either case 2 = abs(X 5 – X 3 ), hence require 2  abs(X 5 – X 3 )

17. Coding the n-queens CSP in ECliPSe :- use_module(library(fd)). nqueens(N, Soln):- length(Soln, N), Soln :: 1..N, safe(Soln), alldifferent(Soln), labeling(Soln). safe([]). safe([CN | CNs]) :- no_attack(CNs, CN, 1),safe(CNs). no_attack([], _, _). no_attack([CN|CNs], First_CN, Diff) :- % Diff #\= abs(First_CN - CN), Diff #\= First_CN - CN, Diff #\= CN - First_CN, Next_Diff is Diff + 1, no_attack(CNs, First_CN, Next_Diff).

18. Running the n-queens program [eclipse 26]: nqueens(6, S). S = [2, 4, 6, 1, 3, 5] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; S = [3, 6, 2, 5, 1, 4] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; S = [4, 1, 5, 2, 6, 3] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; S = [5, 3, 1, 6, 4, 2] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; No (0.00s cpu)                        

19. Bounds propagation, search and optimisation Chapter 2: how constraint solving is realised

20. With and without labelling :- use_module(library(fd)). bounds(X, Y, Z):- [X] :: 1..5, [Y] :: 1..2, [Z] :: 3..5, X #= Y + Z. %labeling([X, Y, Z]). [eclipse 8]: bounds(X, Y, Z). X = X{[4, 5]} Y = Y{[1, 2]} Z = Z{[3, 4]} Yes (0.00s cpu) :- use_module(library(fd)). bounds(X, Y, Z):- [X] :: 1..5, [Y] :: 1..2, [Z] :: 3..5, X #= Y + Z, labeling([X, Y, Z]). [eclipse 8]: bounds(X, Y, Z). X = 4, Y = 1, Z = 3 Yes (0.00s cpu) ? ; X = 5, Y = 1, Z = 4 Yes (0.00s cpu) ? ; X = 5, Y = 2, Z = 3 Yes (0.00s cpu)

21. Unravelling (understanding) bounds propagation zInitially 1  X  5, 1  Y  2 and 3  Z  5 zConsider X = Y + Z yThus 4=min(Y)+min(Z)  X  max(Y)+max(Z)=7 yTighten by 4  X, hence 4  X  5, 1  Y  2 and 3  Z  5 zConsider Y = X - Z yThus -1=min(X)-max(Z)  Y  max(X)-min(Z)=2 yCannot tighten Y zConsider Z = X - Y yThus 2=min(X)-max(Y)  Z  max(X)-min(Y)=4 yTighten by Z  4, hence 4  X  5, 1  Y  2 and 3  Z  4

22. Unravelling (unwinding) labelling [eclipse 8]: [X] :: 1..5, [Y] :: 1..2, [Z] :: 3..5, labeling([X, Y, Z]). X = 1, Y = 1, Z = 3 Yes (0.00s cpu) ? ; X = 1, Y = 1, Z = 4 Yes (0.00s cpu) ? ; X = 1, Y = 1, Z = 5 Yes (0.00s cpu) ? ; X = 1, Y = 2, Z = 3 Yes (0.00s cpu) ? ; X = 1, Y = 2, Z = 4 Yes (0.00s cpu) ? ; X = 1, Y = 2, Z = 5 Yes (0.00s cpu) ? ; bounds(X, Y, Z):- [X] :: 1..5, [Y] :: 1..2, [Z] :: 3..5, labeling([X, Y, Z]). [eclipse 9]: bounds(X, Y, Z). X = 1, Y = 1, Z = 3 Yes (0.00s cpu) ? ; X = 1, Y = 1, Z = 4 Yes (0.00s cpu) ? ; X = 1, Y = 1, Z = 5 Yes (0.00s cpu) ? ;

23. Search without bounds propagation (is inefficient) zWithout bounds propagation, maximum of 5×2×3 = 30 cases need to be checked for consistency with X #= Y + Z zBounds propagation infers 4  X  5, 1  Y  2 and 3  Z  4, hence maximum of 2×2×2 = 8 cases need to be checked for consistency bounds(X, Y, Z):- [X] :: 1..5, [Y] :: 1..2, [Z] :: 3..5, X #= Y + Z, labeling([X, Y, Z]).

24. Bounds propagation without search (  ) z Initially -4  X  4 and -4  Y  4 z Consider Y = 2(X-1), so X = (Y/2)+1 yThus -1= min(Y)/2+1  X  max(Y)/2+1=3 yTighten -1  X  3, hence -1  X  3 and -4  Y  4 z Consider Y = X yThus -1=min(X)  Y  max(X)=3 yTighten -1  Y  3, hence -1  X  3 and -1  Y  3 z Consider Y = 2(X-1), so X = (Y/2)+1 yThus 1/2= min(Y)/2+1  X  max(Y)/2+1=5/2 yTighten 0  X  2, hence 0  X  2 and -1  Y  3 z Consider Y = X yThus 0=min(X)  Y  max(X)=2 yTighten -1  Y  3, hence 0  X  2 and 0  Y  2 cross(X, Y) :- [X, Y] :: -4..4, Y #= 2*(X - 1), Y #= X. [eclipse 8]: cross(X, Y). X = 2 Y = 2 Yes (0.00s cpu)

25. Bounds propagation without search (  ) z The story so far 0  X  2 and 0  Y  2 z Consider Y = 2(X-1), so X = (Y/2)+1 yThus 1= min(Y)/2+1  X  max(Y)/2+1=2 yTighten 1  X  2, hence 1  X  2 and 0  Y  2 z Consider Y = X yThus 1=min(X)  Y  max(X)=2 yTighten 1  Y, hence 1  X  2 and 1  Y  2 z Consider Y = 2(X-1), so X = (Y/2)+1 yThus 3/2= min(Y)/2+1  X  max(Y)/2+1=2 yTighten 2  X, hence 2  X  2 and 1  Y  2 z Consider Y = X yThus 2=min(X)  Y  max(X)=2 yTighten 2  Y, hence 2  X  2 and 2  Y  2 cross(X, Y) :- [X, Y] :: -4..4, Y #= 2*(X - 1), Y #= X. [eclipse 8]: cross(X, Y). X = 2 Y = 2 Yes (0.00s cpu)

26. Bounds propagation without search (  ) z Initially 0  X  1 and 0  Y  1 z Consider X = 1 – Y, thus yThus 0=1-max(Y)  X  1-min(Y)=1 yCannot tighten X z Consider X = 1 – Y, thus Y = 1 - X yThus 0=1-max(Y)  X  1-min(Y)=1 yCannot tighten Y z Consider Y = X, thus yThus 0=min(X)  Y  max(X)=1 yCannot tighten Y z Consider Y = X, thus X = Y yThus 0=min(Y)  X  max(Y)=1 yCannot tighten X non_bit(X, Y):- [X, Y] :: 0..1, X #= 1 – Y, X #= Y. [eclipse 8]: non_bit(X, Y). X = X{[0, 1]} Y = Y{[0, 1]} Yes (0.00s cpu)

27. Bounds propagation versus search z Bounds propagation is incomplete; it does not always perform optimal interval pruning yIt may not have the intelligence to infer that no solutions exist (in non_bit there are 4 cases to consider) yIt may not have the intelligence to infer that only 3 solutions exist (in bounds there are 8 cases to consider) z When intelligence fails, resort to brute force z Follow bounds propagation with labelling to systematically enumerate the space to either: yFind a solution (bounds example) yDetect that no solutions exist (non_bit example)

28. Brute force versus divide- and-conquer zConsider a binary CSP where X = {A, …, H}, D = {A  S, …, H  S} and S = {0,1,2} zNow label E (see the next slide). zE fixed so no propagation occurs from G to E. Once E propagates to G, no more propagation can occur over the E-G constraint so it is as if it is not there. zThus one CSP over {A,B,C,D} and another CSP over {F,G,H,J}. zThe total number of configurations is 3(3 4 + 3 4 ) = 3(81 + 81) = 486 « 19683 = 3 9 zThus labelling can decompose a CSP into independent sub-CSPs that are cheaper to solve than the whole A C D E F G H J

29. A B C D 0 F G H J A B C D 2 F G H J A B C D 1 F G H J Brute force versus divide- and-conquer

30. What is optimisation? zOptimisation is the problem of satisfying a CSP so as to minimise or maximise a solution with respect to a cost function. zA classic optimisation problem is the smuggler’s knapsack problem: A smuggler has a knapsack of limited capacity, say 19 units. He can smuggle in bottles of whiskey of size 4 units, bottles of scent of size 3 units and boxes of cigarettes of size 2 units. The profits from a bottle of whiskey, scent and a box of cigarettes are 15 pounds, 10 pounds and 7 pounds respectively. The smuggler will only make a trip if he can make 30 pounds or more, so what does he take?

31. What is optimisation? zSolve the following CSP: yThe set of variables is X = {W, S, C, P} for number of bottles of whisky, bottles of scent, boxes of cigarettes and the profits yThe domain is D = {W  {0,..,9}, S  {0,…,9}, C  {0,…,9}, P  {0,…,10000}} yThe set of constraints is C = {4W + 3S + 2C  19, P = 15W + 10S + 7C, 30  P}. zSo as to maximise the value assigned to P zA more realistic profit limit is 15.2 + 10.3 + 7.4 = 30 + 30 + 28 = 88

32. “Di-cho-tomic” search (for minimising a cost) zDichotomic search is essentially bisection search built on top of a binary decision procedure for a CSP  Consider minimising a cost function represented by a variable x  X zNote that the maximum number of iterations is log 2 (|D(x)|) zNote that top is not assigned to mid within the while loop function dichotomic(CSP  X, D, C , x  X) begin bot := min(D(x)) top := max(D(x)) if  X, D, C  unsatisfiable then error while (bot < top) mid :=  (bot + top) / 2  if  X, D, C  {bot  x  mid}  satisfiable top := D(x) else bot :=  (bot + top) / 2  + 1 return bot end

33. Example minimisation zSolve the following CSP: yThe set of variables is X = {x, y} yThe domain is D = {x  {-10,…,80}, y  {-3,…,14}} yThe set of constraints is C = {x = (y-4) 2 }. zSo as to minimise the value assigned to x bottop mid :=  (bot + top) / 2  X,D,C  {bot  x  mid}  satisfiable? -108035 yes with {x  9, y  7} -109no 094 yes with {x  1, y  5} 010 yes with {x  0, y  4} 00

34. What about maximisation? zThe knapsack CSP revisited: yThe set of variables is X = {W, S, C, P, Q} for number of bottles of whisky, bottles of scent, boxes of cigarettes and the profits yThe domain is D = {W  {0,..,9}, S  {0,…,9}, C  {0,…,9}, P  {0,…,88}, Q  {-88,…,0}} yThe set of constraints is C = {4W + 3S + 2C  19, P = 15W + 10S + 7C, 30  P, P = -Q}. zSo as to minimise the value assigned to Q zThe act of minimising Q maximises P

35. Maximisation in ECLiPSe :- use_module(library(fd)). :- use_module(library(branch_and_bound)). main(Profit, Goods) :- Goods = [Whisky, Scent, Ciggys], Goods :: 0..9, [Profit] :: 0..88, [NegProfit] :: -88..0, 4*Whisky + 3*Scent + 2*Ciggys #<= 19, Profit #= 15*Whisky + 10*Scent + 7*Ciggys, 30 #<= Profit, NegProfit #= -Profit, bb_min(labeling(Goods), NegProfit, bb_options with [strategy:dichotomic]).

36. Dichotomic optimisation in ECLiPSe [eclipse 28]: main(Profit, Goods). Found a solution with cost –35 Found a solution with cost –63 Found no solution with cost –88.0.. –75.5 Found a solution with cost –70 Found no solution with cost –75.5.. –72.75 Found no solution with cost –72.75.. –71.375 Found no solution with cost –71.375.. –70.375 Profit = 70 Goods = [4, 1, 0] Yes (0.01s cpu)

37. Modeling and reification Chapter 3: how to coerce a problem into a CSP (CLP)

38. How to organise your day :- use_module(library(fd)). main(Begins) :- Begins = [Beg_Work, Beg_Mail, Beg_Shop, Beg_Bank], Ends = [End_Work, End_Mail, End_Shop, End_Bank], Begins :: 9..17, Ends :: 9..17, End_Work #= Beg_Work + 4, End_Mail #= Beg_Mail + 1, End_Shop #= Beg_Shop + 2, End_Bank #= Beg_Bank + 1, End_Bank #=< Beg_Shop, End_Mail #=< Beg_Work, 11 #=< Beg_Work, one_thing_at_a_time(Begins, Ends), labeling(Begins). zCan only perform one task at any given moment in time zIn disjunctive scheduling, certain jobs, say tasks 1 and 2, cannot simultaneously use a resource

39. Modelling disjunctive scheduling with ECLiPSe one_thing_at_a_time([], []). one_thing_at_a_time([Begin | Begins], [End | Ends]) :- one_thing_at_a_time(Begins, Ends, Begin, End), one_thing_at_a_time(Begins, Ends). one_thing_at_a_time([], [], _, _). one_thing_at_a_time([Begin1 | Begins], [End1 | Ends], Begin2, End2) :- non_overlap(Begin1, End1, Begin2, End2), one_thing_at_a_time(Begins, Ends, Begin2, End2). non_overlap(Begin1, End1, Begin2, End2) :- (Begin1 #>= End2) #\/ (Begin2 #>= End1).

40. How to organise your day [eclipse 10]: main(Begins). Begins = [13,12,10,9] More (0.00s cpu) ? ; Begins = [13,10,11,9] ? ; More (0.00s cpu) ? ; Begins = [13,9,11,10] ? ; More (0.00s cpu) ? ; Begins = [11,10,15,9] ? ; More (0.00s cpu) ? ; Begins = [11,9,15,10] More (0.00s cpu) 910111213141516 BSSMWWWW BMSSWWWW MBSSWWWW BMWWWWSS MBWWWWSS

41. Reified constraints [eclipse 1]: [X, Y, B] :: 0..1, X # B, X #= 0, Y #= 1. B #= 1 is posted because X < Y is entailed (it is implied from now on) [eclipse 2]: [X, Y, B] :: 0..1, X # B, X #= 1, Y #= 0. B #= 0 is posted because X < Y is disentailed (it can never be implied from now on) [eclipse 3]: [X, Y, B] :: 0..1, X # B, B #= 1. X #< Y is posted to the store which, in turn, ensures X = 0, Y = 1. [eclipse 4]: [X, Y, B] :: 0..1, X #= B, B #= 0. The negation of X #= Y, which, in turn, ensures X = 1, Y = 0. [eclipse 5]: [X, Y, B] :: 0..1, X # B, X #= 0. Neither B #= 0 nor B #= 1 is posted because X < Y is entailed nor disentailed. zInstead of merely adding a constraint to the store, like X #< Y say, it is often useful to attach a flag, say B, to the constraint to test and set its truth or falsity

42. Reification for implementing disjunction non_overlap(Begin1, End1, Begin2, End2) :- [B1, B2] :: 0..1, Begin1 #>= End2 # B1, Begin2 #>= End1 # B2, B1 + B2 #> 1. ‘XgreaterthanYimpliesXlessthanZ’(X, Y, Z) :- [B1, B2] :: 0..1, X #> Y # B1, X # B2, B1 #<= B2.

43. Reification for counting :- use_module(library(fd)). atmost(Ts, C) :- atmost_aux(Ts, 0, C). atmost_aux([], Acc, C) :- Acc #=< C. atmost_aux([T | Ts], Acc, C) :- [B] :: 0..1, Acc1 #= Acc + B, 0 # B, atmost_aux(Ts, Acc1, C). main(Ts, N) :- Ts = [T, _], Ts :: -1.. 1, atmost(Ts, N), T #= 1. [eclipse 24]: main(Ts, 2). Ts = [1, _211{[-1..1]}] Yes (0.00s cpu) [eclipse 25]: main(Ts, 1). Ts = [1, _211{[-1..0]}] Yes (0.00s cpu) [eclipse 26]: main(Ts, 0). No (0.00s cpu) zConsider the problem of writing a predicate atmost(Ts, C) which ensures that at most C elements of the list Ts are positive

44. The tennis tournament problem zThe problem is to schedule the matches of a tennis tournament so as to minimise the total length of the tournament zEach of n competitors plays each of the other n - 1 competitors giving n(n - 1)/2 matches in all zEach match takes an equal amount of time and at most c matches can be contested simultaneously since there are c courts zNo competitor can play two or more others at the same time zNo competitor has back-to-back matches, that is, each competitor has at least one match's worth of rest between each match

45. How can the tennis tournament be modelled? zThe problem can be modelled by upper triangular matrix which represents “who plays who and when” zA matrix for the n = 5 and c = 2 is 12345 11357 21579 33591 45793 57913 zFor n = 6 (our instance) the problem reduces to labelling a list Ts = [T12, T13, T14, T15, T16, T23, T24, T25, T26, …, T56] where Ts is constrained by Ts :: 1..Max_T zA predicate one_game_apart([T12, T13, T14, T15, T16]) will ensure that each of these time slots is separated by at least one game

46. How can we write one_game_apart? one_game_apart([]). one_game_apart([H | T]) :- one_game_apart(T, H), one_game_apart(T). one_game_apart([], _). one_game_apart([H | T], D) :- %abs(H - D) #> 1, (H - D #> 1) #\/ (D - H #> 1) one_game_apart(T, D).

47. Schedule at most c matches simultaneously zWe need a predicate atmost(Ts, Time, C), say, which constrains Ts so that no more than C matches are played in a given time slot Time my_atmost(Ts, Time, C) :- atmost_aux(Ts, 0, Time, C). atmost_aux([], Acc, _, C) :- Acc #=< C. atmost_aux([T | Ts], Acc, Time, C) :- [B] :: 0..1, Acc1 #= Acc + B, Time #= T # B, atmost_aux(Ts, Acc1, Time, C).

48. Schedule at most c matches simultaneously zWe need to call my_atmost multiply like my_atmost(Ts, 1, C), my_atmost(Ts, 2, C), …, my_atmost(Ts, HighestT, C) to cover all the time slots 1, 2, …, HighestT courts(0, _, _). courts(Time, Ts, C) :- Time > 0, my_atmost(Ts, Time, C), Time1 is Time - 1, courts(Time1, Ts, C). bound_time([], _). bound_time([T | Ts], BoundT) :- T #=< BoundT, bound_time(Ts, BoundT). zTo perform minimisation, we need to find the maximum time slot occurring in Ts zIt is sufficient to find an upper bound on the time slots in Ts

49. How does it all fit together? main(Ts, C, BoundT) :- HighestT = 29, % 15 games on one court Ts = [T12, T13, T14, T15, T16, T23, T24, T25, T26, T34, T35, T36, T45, T46, T56], Ts :: 1..HighestT, [BoundT] :: 1..HighestT, one_game_apart([T12, T13, T14, T15, T16]), one_game_apart([T12, T23, T24, T25, T26]), one_game_apart([T13, T23, T34, T35, T36]), one_game_apart([T14, T24, T34, T45, T46]), one_game_apart([T15, T25, T35, T45, T56]), one_game_apart([T16, T26, T36, T46, T56]), courts(HighestT, Ts, C), bound_time(Ts, BoundT), append(Ts, [BoundT], AllTs), bb_min(labeling(AllTs), BoundT, bb_options with [strategy:dichotomic]).

50. Games schedules for 2 and 3 courts (4 is not better) [eclipse 28]: main(Ts, 2, BoundT). Found a solution with cost 13 Found no solution with cost 1.0.. 7.0 Found no solution with cost 7.0.. 10.0 Found a solution with cost 11 Ts = [1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 6, 9, 11, 3, 11, 9, 1, 2, 7, 5] BoundT = 11 More (9.43s cpu) ? [eclipse 28]: main(Ts, 3, BoundT). Found a solution with cost 13 Found no solution with cost 1.0.. 7.0 Found a solution with cost 9 Found no solution with cost 7.0.. 8.0 Ts = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 5, 7, 9, 3, 9, 1, 7, 3, 1, 5] BoundT = 9 More (0.15s cpu) ? 123456 1135710 2169113 336 91 459 27 57 925 6103175