1. Part II: Mainland Southeast Asia

2. Introduction to the Musics of Mainland Southeast Asia

3. Nation-states do not necessarily define human cultural groups
nation-states are complicated by linguistic and ethnic pluralism
no one type of music is Thai, or Burmese, or Lao
terms like Thai, Burmese, and Lao denote majority cultures

4. Each Southeast Asian nation looks clearly defined, but is complex
each has cultural regions, minority ethnic groups, and historical strata
provinces and even neighboring villages can differ markedly

5. Knowledge of the mainland by researchers is not uniform
Thailand, Vietnam and Malaysia have been ‘open’ to researchers
Burma, in contrast, was closed to outsiders until the 1990s
parts of Cambodia and Laos are still either off limits or difficult to visit

6. Questions for Discussion
How does this description of the mainland differ from the general region?
What is the relationship between a nation-state and an ethnic group?
Does being part of an ethnic group mean being unified as a people?

7. The Khmer People of Cambodia

8. Khmer denotes the majority ethnic group in the Kingdom of Cambodia
The nation was called Kampuchea, but the term is now avoided
Cambodia’s boundaries were created during colonialism
many lowland Khmer live in Thailand and Vietnam
many upland Khmer live in Laos and Vietnam

9. The nation
most of Cambodia is flat, except for mountains on the borders
extensive forests and plains with wet-rice cultivation
Two major rivers: the Mekong and the Tonle Sap
estimated population of almost 14 million people
90% of the population is ethnically Khmer

10. The culture Many aspects of culture were transmitted from India
temples of Angkor include bas-reliefs of cultural elements, including music
Buddhism became the dominant religion in Cambodia by the 13th century

11. War and colonialism
The Siamese Tai kingdoms of Sukhothai and Ayuthaya warred frequently with the Khmer
the Tai carried off 90,000 prisoners, including musicians and dancers
Khmer people were bereft of their cultural treasures

12. War and colonialism (cont.)
Cambodia asked for France’s protection against Siamese and Vietnamese aggression, and became a French protectorate in 1864
Cambodia became part of the Indochinese Union

13. Independence and chaos
King Norodom Sihanouk proclaimed independence in 1949
Sihanouk was overthrown by Lon Nol in 1970, who established the Khmer Republic

14. Independence and chaos (cont.)
: Cambodia led into destruction by Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge, including the killing of many traditional performing artists
1992: Paris Peace Accord restored Sihanouk to power as king; his son now reigns

15. Music in Cambodia
Khmer civilization reached its peak from the 9th to the 15th centuries
the temple at Angkor reveals musical instruments and their contexts

16. Music in Cambodia (cont.)
15th century conflicts with the Siamese led to a decline in Khmer musical culture Khmer music revived by the 18th century
In the 20th century, conservation, preservation and revival

17. Khmer musical instruments
three divisions:
percussion
stringed
wind instruments
two functions:
religious
secular

18. Khmer musical instruments (cont.)
other classifications include:
physical materials
role (leader, follower)
musical style
ensemble context
controlling action
size
status (court, folk)
system of beliefs

19. Khmer musical instruments (cont.)
Materials
Clay
hide
Bamboo
Gourd
Silk
horn
Wood
metals

20. Idiophones concussion idiophones (chhap, krapp) struck idiophones
xylophones (roneat ek, roneat thung/thomm, roneat dak)
gongs (korng, korng vung tauch, korng vung thomm, korng mong, khmuoh)
plucked idiophones (angkuoch)

21. Membranophones
drums (skor arakk, skor thomm, skor chhaiyaim, skor yike, skor klang khek, sampho, rumanea)
mirliton (slekk)

22. Chordophones harp (pinn) zithers (khse muoy, krapeu, khimm)
lutes (tror, tror Khmer, tror chhe, tror so tauch, tror so thomm, tror ou, tror ou chamhieng, chapey dang veng)

23. Aerophones flutes (khloy)
reeds (sneng, ploy, pey pork, ken, pey prabauh, sralai, sralai tauch, sralai thomm, sralai klang khek)
trumpets (saing)

24. System of tuning
the perfect fifth and octave are constant; the rest are tuned by ear
scales: anhemitonic pentatonic and heptatonic
key: two main tonal centers (G and C) for two main performing ensembles

25. System of tuning (cont.)
mode: basis for composition, improvisation, embellishment, extra-musical features (context, time, mood, etc.)
basis of mode has to do with pitch hierarchy in relation to final tone
texture: melodically based, heterophonic

26. Rhythmic features meter: duple
final stroke of each metrical cycle is the strongest
strong and weak beats articulated by cymbals
drumming patterns are cyclic
drums set the tempo and keep time, but are considered secondary

27. Structural features
pitches at the end of each cycle constitute the skeletal form of the melody
musicians follow a collective melody, serving as a general guideline

28. Structural features (cont.)
cycles: three lengths occurring in multiples of two (for example, four measures, eight measures, and sixteen measures)
drums execute a specific pattern associated with the prescribed metrical level

29. Court music, dance, and theater
Ensembles
vung phleng pinn peat (main court ensemble)
pinn peat (drum music/dance music)
vung phleng mohori (secular entertainment)
arakk and kar (religious contexts)
Repertoire
musicians are expected to vary their playing

30. Court music, dance, and theater (cont.)
dancers try to make their bodies, arms, hands, and feet curvilinear
types of dance: pure dance, thematic dance, dance-drama
Reamker (Ramayana) principal theme for court dance
gestures are formalized
pinn peat supports the dancers through melodic, temporal and percussive signals

31. Court music, dance, and theater (cont.)
masked play
shadow puppet play
dance, mime, song, music, narration

32. Folk music
ceremonial music (life cycles, seasonal celebrations, temple fairs)
spirit worship music (arakk)
wedding ceremonies (kar)
funerals
other festivals

33. Theater (lkhaon)
yike (dancing, acting, miming, narrations, songs, music)
basakk (Chinese derived)
functional repertoires
boxing (pradall)
repartee (ayai)
narrative (chrieng chapey)

34. Theater (lkhaon) (cont.)
folk dance
performed in conjunction with seasonal festivals
natural world as inspiration
other festivals

35. Solo instrumental music
slekk (leaf)
angkuoch (Jew’s harp)
sneng (free-reed horn)
saing (conch shell)
pey pork (free-reed pipe)
say diev (chest-resonated monochord)

36. Khmer religious music Theravada Buddhism chanting (saut thoar) in Pali
poetic recitation (smaut)

37. Foreign and modern music
French colonial roots
Filipino influences
disappearance of pop music
contexts: nightclubs, parties, weddings, sports, social dances, restaurants
low social status of musicians

38. Foreign and modern music (cont.)
themes: love, revolution, heroism, sadness
pop bands use only Western instruments
classification of songs by rhythms and styles of dancing
fixed format: ABCB

39. Contemporary uses of traditional arts
shift from recreation and entertainment to politics or tourist performances
diminishment of cultural practices
few opportunities for traditional musicians
Khmer refugee communities abroad are known for their performing arts
other festivals

40. Questions for Discussion
What kind of impact can an internal or external political power wield on the performing arts?
What is the point of having a different ensemble for entertainment and religious purposes?
Can you think of other heterophonic types of music?
Why would pop bands use only Western instruments?

41. Thailand

42. History four cultural regions: center, south, north, northeast
Westernization began in the 19th century, but Thailand was not colonized
Golden Age of Thailand between 13th and 17th centuries

43. History (cont.)
Thailand includes 76 provinces and about 65 million people
Tai people are a diverse set of related groups both inside and outside Thailand

44. Village and court associations
courts associated with ruling elite and their ceremonies and entertainments
villages associated with cycles of festivals related to agriculture and Buddhism
classical music, dance and theater are tied to Thai identity
transmission is primarily through public school system
Bangkok remains highly influential culturally

45. General observations importance of etiquette
no use of notation or questioning by the students
training was lengthy and done by rote
Thai music is ensemble oriented

46. Idiophones concussion idiophones (ching, chap, krap) struck idiophones
xylophones (ranat ek, ranat thum)
gongs (khawng wong yai, khawng wong lek, khawng mawn)

47. Membranophones single-headed drums (thon, rammana)
double-headed drums (klawng that, taphon, klawng khaek, boeng mang kawk)

48. Aerophones
flutes (khlui)
reeds (pi, pi chawa, pi mawn)

49. Chordophones lutes (krajappi, saw sam sai, saw duang, saw u)
zithers (ja-khe, khim)

50. Ensembles khrüang sai types (string ensemble)
mohori types (entertainment and dance-drama accompaniment)
piphat types (most important ensemble in Thailand)

51. Contexts for classical music
historical (court activities, coronations, etc.)
contemporary (colleges, private homes, temple fairs, funerals)

52. Theater (khon) masked drama (khon): Ramakian, based on the Ramayana
performed in episodes only
shadow puppet theater (nang yai)
related to classical khon
narrated offstage
accompanied by piphat ensemble

53. Theater (khon) (cont.) dance-drama (lakhawn) rod puppet theater (hün)
emphasis on singing and graceful dancing
vocal parts done offstage
very spare set and use of symbolism
rod puppet theater (hün)
only one troupe remains
rare and seldom seen

54. Other narrative and ritual traditions
ritual to honor teachers (wai khru)
ceremony to bind one’s spiritual essence (tham khwan)
Buddha’s life story telling (thet mahachat)
narrative storytelling (sepha)

55. Pitch controversy over Thai tunings
temperament set by ear, with tolerance over pitch deviation
scale: seven tones in an octave; five tones are the basis of most compositions
mode: melodic idiom, style, drum patterns, etc.

56. Rhythm rhythmic density articulated by brass cymbals
three levels of rhythmic density; the first is the most dense, and the third is the least dense proportionately
drum strokes and patterns have names

57. Rhythm (cont.)
two main drumming patterns and special patterns for individual pieces
drummers play variations on the basic patterns

58. Tempo piphat ensemble can play as fast as the leader is able
lakhawn played more slowly
solo ranat ek can be played very rapidly
solo khlui or saw will be played slower to highlight ornamentation

59. Melody
melody is manifested in many individual realizations according to the idiom of the instrument or voice
two main characters of melody: motivic and lyrical

60. Melody (cont.) Thai melodies tend to be conjunct rather than disjunct
regular and symmetrical phrases

61. Texture relationship to other gong-chime musical cultures not a given
polyphonic stratification/heterophony

62. Form underlying structure defined by the strokes of the ching
final stroke of each metrical cycle is the strongest
strong and weak beats articulated by cymbals

63. Form (cont.)
composers develop new works from old formulaic conventions
compositions constructed of two or more sections (thawn)
same rhythmic density maintained throughout a section or piece

64. Extramusical relationships
many titles allude to animals
meaning of titles may be expressed in vocal texts
many pieces have programmatic titles

65. Improvisation flexibility in performance is permissible
impromptu composition does not occur
students are taught to play specific versions

66. Composers early compositions are anonymous
compositions from after the 19th century are attributed to known composers
fleshing out the composition occurs in performance
names of the composers are confusing

67. Repertoire
naphat: instrumental compositions associated with theater and ritual ceremony
phleng rüang: suite of pieces not linked to a story
homrong: overtures or suites
phleng tap: shorter suites
phleng tao: composition played continuously in three rhythmic densities

68. Repertoire (cont.)
phleng yai: great pieces, including extended ensemble compositions
phleng dio: works for solo instruments
phleng la: pieces to end a concert
phleng kret: miscellaneous pieces

69. Repertoire (cont.)
“national accent” pieces: tunes considered to be in the style of another culture
phleng hang khrüang: short, playful pieces
vocal sections include words strung out in long melismas, complex intonation,and nasal timbre

70. Notation two types: tablature and pitch notation
notation is used to convey a generic version of a melody
the accented note comes just before the bar

71. Thai music history reconstructing Thai music history is difficult
few documents have survived
scholarly study of Thai music is only recent
problems in dating the surviving documents

72. Thai music history (cont.)
written sources
earliest known document from 14th century
earliest European account from 16th century
many book chapters from (often biased and ethnocentric)
exception to ethnocentrism was Anna Leonowens’ work
after 1900, many detailed scholarly treatments of Thai music

73. Thai music history (cont.)
iconographic sources
many temple depictions of instruments and musical scenes
restorations may have obscured original intent
the modern period
suppression of classical music
importance of education in reviving classical music

74. Buddhism in Thai music
temple as focus of festivities and Buddhist life
Buddhist festivals parallel the agricultural cycle
Buddhism and Hinduism entered Thailand 500 years after Buddha’s death in532 BCE

75. Buddhism in Thai music (cont.)
Buddhism is both a philosophy and a syncretistic popular religion
occasions for chanting and instrumental music
songkran: traditional new year (April 13)
awk phansa: end of agricultural work (October)
kathin: gift-giving to monks (October-November)
loi kratong: festival of lights (full moon of November)
temple fairs (November to March)
ordinations, marriages, funerals, king’s birthday, etc.

76. Buddhism in Thai music (cont.)
chanting is the responsibility of both monks and novices
chanting occurs both inside and outside the temple compound
varieties of chant

77. Buddhism in Thai music (cont.)
preaching (thet) includes two basic styles
transmission requires memorization of texts
chant on a single pitch with inflections on different pitches
story-sermons in regional vernacular and in more melodic fashion

78. Sukhwan ritual
Hindu-derived, intended to restore the health of a person
ritual performed in temple meeting hall, home, or elsewhere
loss of khwan can cause afflictions and misfortunes
calls back the khwan (psyche, morale, spiritual essence)

79. Regional Thai culture
Thai regions were once isolated from central Thailand
modernization brought Bangkok/popular culture to the far regions of Thailand
people spoke regional languages and maintained distinctiveness until the 1970s

80. Central Thai culture focused on village life
village songs occur in conjunction with agricultural and festival cycles
li-ke theatrical performances occur on temporary stages
long-drum ensembles found in processions

81. Southern Thailand was once the center of Malay civilization
substantial Muslim population
instruments similar to those found elsewhere in Thailand
genres include nora (dance-drama), and nang talung (shadow-puppet)

82. Northern Thailand instruments unique to the region
heterophonic texture of ensemble music
extensive ornamentation of melody

83. Northern Thailand (cont.)
music performed in courting, weddings, housewarmings, processions, festivals, and funerals
genres include narrative, repartee, theater, courtship, spirit dances, and festival dances

84. Northeastern Thailand
borders Cambodia and Laos, with three separate cultural subgroups
instruments distinct from the rest of Thailand
lam: vocal music incorporating flexible melody and tones of the poetry
courtship poetry is the basis for some vocal genres

85. Northeastern Thailand
khaen: free-reed bamboo organ
most important instrument of the region
personal and eclectic style
improvised music based on lai, a simple modal system
basic repertoire consists of improvisations in all five standard modes
several basic programmatic pieces are known to all players
five named lai

86. Northeastern Thailand
genres of lam (vocal music centered on texts in Lao)
storytelling and courtship
performances occur in conjunction with calendrical rites
lam mu theater
popular songs

87. Popular music in Thailand
brass bands
pop songs based on Thai classical melodies
songs for life
American influence
ballroom dance

88. Questions for Discussion
Does the music change depending on whether the nation has been colonized?
What are the musical results of religious, regional, and political influences?
What is the musical difference between the different regions of Thailand?
What sources can you trust when you try to understand a nation’s musical history?

89. Laos

90. The nation
landlocked country, bordering on Vietnam, Thailand, Burma and China
mostly forested and mountainous (4% arable land)
poverty has prevented modernization
multicultural population of over 6 million, primarily living in the lowlands

91. Nonclassical music musical instruments parallel those in Thailand
kong (two-headed lace drums) and cymbals (sing and sap) are important
khene – a free-reed mouth organ – is the predominant instrument in rural Laos

92. Nonclassical music (cont.)
tuning is based on the khene (7 tones per octave), similar to diatonic scale
the khene accompanies singing, most of which is in the form of repartee
two basic pentatonic scales: san (sounds major) and yao (sounds minor)

93. Rituals
healing
rocket festival
buffalo sacrifice

94. Entertainment 12 regional genres named for places or ethnic groups
singers perform in small, intimate settings
7 Southern genres are preceded with the word lam
performances occur with calendrical, Buddhist, and national festivals
5 Northern genres are preceded with the word khap

95. Southern regional genres
lam sithandone
lam som
lam salavane
lam ban xok
lam phu thai
lam khon savan
lam mahaxay
lam tang vay

96. Northern regional genres
khap ngeum
khap phuan
khap sam neua
khap thum
khap thai dam

97. Nonclassical vocal genres – some observations
khap genres differ stylistically from the lam
Southern Lao singers perform multiple genres, but northern singers perform one
lam genres are typically accompanied by a small ensemble instead of the khene
all southern Lao genres have metrical accompaniment
three khap genres are similar to each other

98. Theater nonclassical theater has existed in Laos only since the 1940s
origin from Thai li-ke theater
lam poen developed from recited narrative to lam leuang, an acted narrative
lam mu (collective singing): scripted, acted-out stories

99. Classical music
the term peng lao deum (Lao traditional compositions) differentiates classical compositions from nonclassical genres like lam
historical power and influence of Thailand

100. Classical music (cont.)
most of the court tradition disappeared (1828) and was reinstated (1950s) , the disappeared again (after 1975)
purposes of classical music: entertainment, atmosphere, accompaniment to ritual, theater, and dance

101. Classical musical instruments all have Thai equivalents
plucked instruments (tit)
lutes (kachappi)
bowed instruments (si)
two-stringed fiddles (so i and so u)

102. Classical musical instruments all have Thai equivalents (cont.)
beaten instruments (ti)
xylophones (lanat ek mai and lanat thum mai)
gong circles (khong vong noi, khong vong nyai)
cymbals (sing and sap)
two-headed barrel drums (kong taphone, kong that)
hammered dulcimers (khim)

103. Classical musical instruments all have Thai equivalents (cont.)
blown instruments (bao)
reeds (pi kaeo)
flutes (khui)

104. Ensembles (named differently in Vientiane and Luang Phrabang)
ensemble associated with ritual, formal occasions, theater and dance is called piphat in Vientiane and sep nyai in Luang Phrabang
includes xylophones, gong circles, and oboe or flute
other ensemble is called maholi in Vientiane and sep noi in Luang Phrabang
flexible instrumentation but usually strings and flutes

105. Regional styles of classical music
three separate but similar court traditions developed
Champassak in the south
vanished when the Thai gained power
one classical ensemble still exists in a village
part of its territory was ceded to Cambodia

106. Regional styles of classical music (cont.)
Luang Phrabang in the north
had been the royal capital and king’s residence
after 1975 court music ceased to function; loss of royal status
classical dance, masked drama and hand-puppet theater

107. Regional styles of classical music (cont.)
Vientiane (administrative capital) in the center
purpose of performing arts to promote Lao national identity
tradition began largely as a copy of Bangkok’s traditions
performances at festivals and for visiting dignitaries

108. Regional styles of classical music (cont.)
shift to communist rule
current performances include piphat, maholi, and khene vo
elite arts, costumes and Thai influences eliminated

109. Popular music Vientiane had a lively nightclub scene before 1975
Lao popular culture is primarily borrowed from Thailand
prevalent pop music is modernized renditions of traditional regional genres

110. Popular music (cont.)
poverty and Thai media stand in the way of pop music’s development in Laos
diaspora includes some of the top musicians
musicians are mostly free to perform, but who can afford to pay them?

111. Questions for Discussion
What is actually Lao about Laotian music?
What is the difference between nonclassical and classical musics in Laos?
What can you say about a nation in which most of its musicians live abroad?
How did the shift to communist rule have an impact on music?

112. Burma

113. The Nation
officially called Myanmar, Burma borders on Bangladesh, India, China, Thailand, and Laos; it is slightly smaller than Texas
population of over 47 million people, including the primary ethnic group of Burmese at 68%, followed by much smaller percentages of Shan, Karen, Rakhine, Chinese, Mon, Indian, and others

114. The Nation (cont.)
research limited in non-Burmese states, and few know much about Burma at all
Burmese arts include imported genres from what is now Thailand
nationally the predominant religion is Theravada Buddhism

115. Outdoor ensembles
hsaìñwaìñ: most important and most frequently heard outdoor ensemble
drum circle (pa’waìñ) – variations on the melody
gong circle (cìwaìñ) – variations on the melody
gong rack (maùñsaìñ)
barrel drums (pa’má and sakhúñ) – the less they play, the more important
oboe (hnè) – carries the melody
flute (palwei)
cymbals (sì and yakwìñ))
wood block (byau’)
bamboo clappers (wale’hkou’)
large gong (maùñ)

116. Outdoor ensembles (cont.)
hsaìñwaìñ is used to accompany theater, ritual, religious, and funereal festivals
spirit-propitiation rite (na’ pwè)
theatrical performances (za’ pwè)
formerly royal entertainment (anyeìñ)
virtuosic stand-alone performances (bala hsaìñ)

117. Outdoor ensembles (cont.)
other outdoor drums and percussion
òzi played with cymbals, clappers, flute or oboe
doupá (small) with large cymbals, oboe, and clappers
bouñcì (larger) in pairs with oboe, clappers and cymbals
byò (stick-beaten) with a large oboe and cymbals
hcìñloùñ – sporting event accompanied by gongs, oboe, and drums
cisi (metal chime) associated with temples
sito (stick-beaten) associated with royalty

118. Indoor instruments
saùñ (arched harp) – the most prestigious instrument, associated with courts
pa’tala (bamboo xylophone)
wà (hand-held bamboo clapper)
sì (two small hand-held cymbals)

119. Rhythm and percussion classical pieces begin with a nonmetered section
meter articulated by the sì and wà in one of three cyclic rhythmic patterns
percussive patterns structure the pieces and provide a foil for the variations and embellishments of the other instruments

120. Vocal music most compositions are settings of poetic texts
song types fall within four Burmese modes
hnyìñloùñ
myìnzaìn
pale
au’ pyañ
classical repertoire is called thahcìñ cì (“great song”)

121. Vocal music (cont.)
yoùdayà songs believed to have come to Burma from Thailand
moñ and talaìñ songs thought to come from the Mon people
relationship between tonal language and tones of the music
language is archaic and allusive
deìñ than songs used to propitiate spirits

122. Music theory
no standardized notation, and no one is actually playing the song or tune
tuning includes seven notes to the octave, similar to “major” scale
agreed-upon tuning with room for variation
modes are based on five tones, and include recurring melodic formulas

123. Music theory (cont.)
cadences are important to identification of a specific mode
drum circle and harp must be retuned for each mode
not all modes are represented in the hsaìñ or chamber music repertoire

124. Transmission and change
two anthologies with five hundred songs
music learning is embedded in social contexts
increasing influence of Westernization, the media and cultural policies
traveling theater troupes important for transmission of music
private lessons and state schools
personal relationships between musicians and apprentices

125. Questions for Discussion
Why do some people call it Burma, while others call it Myanmar?
How does having a majority culture in power affect the minority cultures?
Who gets to decide what is worth transmitting or preserving?
How does Burma maintain musical autonomy in the face of Westernization?

126. Peninsular Malaysia

127. The nation peninsular Malaysia is part of the Federation of Malaysia
Hinduism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Islam all came by the 1200s
Malays have ruled the peninsula for centuries
orang asli inhabit inland mountain forests as hunter-gatherers

128. The nation (cont.)
each ethnic group has maintained separate performing arts traditions
population of over 24 million, 50% Malay, 23% Chinese, and other indigenous
and non-indigenous groups

129. Rural theater and dance traditions
shadow-puppet theater
wayang kulit
wayang kulit Jawa
wayang gedek
wayang Siam and wayang melayu

130. Rural theater and dance traditions (cont.)
dance-drama
mak yong
mek mulung
hadrah
rodat
manora
jikay

131. Rural theater and dance traditions (cont.)
dances
barongan and kuda kepang
randai
tari inai
dabus

132. Rural theater and dance traditions (cont.)
storytelling traditions
include stylized language, song/chant, instruments
instruments include bowed stringed instruments
can include drama or masks

133. Rural theater and dance traditions (cont.)
music for healing
main saba (curing ceremony)
main lukah (fisherman’s curing ritual)
main puteri (spirit possession)
music for the martial arts (pencak silat)
gendang silat ensemble

134. Music for other purposes
music for work
agriculture
fishing
rice pounding
music for life-cycle events
circumcision
other events
weddings

135. Music for other purposes (cont.)
general entertainment
rebana ubi
kertok kelapa
dikir barat
seruling
kacapi

136. Traditional urban musical-theatrical genres (cont.)
bangsawan – romances and situations involving the royalty
boria – comic sketch and song-dance routine
spoken dialogue alternates with song and dance
instruments include the piano, flute, violin, rebana

137. Traditional urban musical-theatrical genres (cont.)
musical traditions at court
shadow-play music
joget gamelan
asyek dance
nobat ceremonial music

138. Music and religion zikir sung during important rituals
importance of the frame drum (rebana)
chanting the Qur’an is the highest sonic art form
musiqa does not apply to Islamic religious sounds
two streams: pre-Islamic and post-Islamic

139. Urban-based folk music
colotomic instruments (gongs, used to mark off points in time)
rhythmic instruments (two-headed barrel drums and single-headed frame drums)
melodic instruments (violin, flute, gambus, harmonium)

140. West Malaysian popular music
dangdut
keroncong
ghazal
zapin
joget and ronggeng
pantun
asli and dondang sayang

141. European music Malay pop Malay rock and kugiran muzik seriosa
muzik klasik

142. Questions for Discussion
Does Malaysia “count” as a gong-chime culture?
How does Malaysia maintain musical autonomy in the face of Westernization?
How does having a majority culture in power affect the minority cultures?
Should any one genre of music predominate? who decides?

143. Vietnam

144. The nation most Viet are Buddhists, but Vietnam is multicultural
population of over 85 million: Viet in lowlands, minorities in uplands
Socialist Republic of Vietnam bordered by China, Laos and Cambodia
three distinct cultural regions: north, center, south

145. History
earliest musical instruments included bronze drums, bells, lithophones
indigenous music was part of festivals and religious ceremonies
Buddhism and Indian culture introduced by merchants

146. History (cont.) Vietnam won independence from China in 938
music, dance, theater were all royal entertainments
water puppet performances and boat races for king’s birthday

147. Those in power and the music they listened to
Buddhist dynasties
Lê and Nguyên dynasties
Reform movements in the 20th century
Influence from the west

148. Pluralized music theory
vocal music dominates many musical performances
heterophony
musical forms in chamber music
music is presented in a specific order

149. Modes four basic skills
modes based on a combined set of concepts (hoi-diêu)
organizing tonal materials in hierarchical patterns
preparing modal sentiments for a given song or piece
using specific melodic patterns
displaying ornamentation

150. Scales scales vary according to the genre, subgenre, or social context
bottom note of scales fit the singer’s voice or the instrument’s capacity
sentiment
transmigration of scales
ornamentation
12 possible tones; most pieces use fewer than 12 (usually five to seven)

151. Rhythm and meter syncopation distinguishes it from Chinese music
sung poetry and Buddhist hymns are nonmetrical
theatrical and ceremonial musics include multiple rhythmic patterns
emphasis on the final beat of each unit
metrical organization according to cycles of beats

152. Musical instruments
instrumental music predominates in ritual and ceremonial musics
instruments accompany the voice in chamber and theatrical musics

153. Idiophones: the earliest and most numerous in Vietnam
bronze drum (trông dông) is the oldest
large bronze bell (dai hông chung) played in Buddhist ceremonies
gongs (chiêng, thanh la, dâu) used in ceremonies and theater
bowl chime (chuông gia trì) punctuates sections of chant
small bell (tiêu chung) calls the monks to assemble

154. Idiophones: the earliest and most numerous in Vietnam
slit drums (mõ) used for chant, summoning people, or warning
chimes (khánh) made of bronze and stone, found in temples
clappers (phách, song lang and sinh tiên) used in various contexts
cymbals (chap chõa) played in theatrical, festival, and ritual music

155. Membranophones
trông is the generic name for one or two skin-headed drums
small drum on a stand (trông bát nhã)
small two-headed drum (trông bung)
small, one-headed drum from the south (bông)

156. Membranophones (cont.)
large drum (trông châu)
battle drum (trông chiên) used in onstage battle scenes
pair of drums (trông nhac) main drums of nhac le ensemble
two-headed drum (trông com)

157. Chordophones zithers (dàn bâu, dàn tranh, dàn tam thâp luc)
bowed lutes (dàn nhi, dàn cò phu, dàn gáo)
plucked lutes (dàn dáy, dàn nguyêt, ty bà, dàn xên)

158. Aerophones
flutes (sáo, tiêu)
double-reed oboes (ken)

159. Folk songs
genres
singing occurs in three distinct stages: greeting, contesting, farewell
sung at seasonal festivals, work, private gatherings

160. Folk songs (cont.) genres miscellaneous songs hát quan ho satirical ruly
hát phuóng vai
miscellaneous songs
satirical
wishing
card games
narratives
children’s songs

161. Chamber music
ca trù (improvisatory chanted poetry with instruments and dancers)
don ca tài tu (chamber music performed not for profit)
ca huê (pre-composed music for strings from Huê)

162. Theater six major theatrical genres and 20+ local folk-drama types
folk drama provided the fundamental elements in creating dramatic gestures
props guide all dance movements as well as decorate the stage

163. Theater (cont.) water puppet theater (rôi nuóc)
interactive folk drama (hát chèo)
classical theater (hát bôi or tuông)
recitative (nói lôi)
melodic types (bài hát)
modal songs (diêu hát)

164. Theater (cont.) Western-style spoken drama (kich nói)
early 20th century theater (cái luong)
“card game” theater (hát bài chòi)
vocal types reference parts of the body; it is nonmetrical and improvisatory

165. Dance
dance techniques, costumes and meanings have been incorporated into theater
dances performed as part of yearly cycle of festivals (Buddhist, folk, ritual)
theatrical dances
folk dances
court dances

166. Religious music influences from Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism
earliest rituals derived from animism

167. Religious music (cont.)
Buddhist liturgy
cantillation of sutras and mantras (regional variation)
poetic hymns
many percussion instruments
mixing speech and song
châu van ritual (music serving as intermediary between living and dead)

168. Modern trends in Vietnamese music
exposure to Roman Catholic missionaries and French colonialism
early European musical influence
new compositions: romantic or activist-revolutionary
modernization included French songs sung in Vietnamese
invention or modification of Western instruments

169. Modern trends in Vietnamese music (cont.)
Western classical music
modern music
new “traditional” music (cai biên)
popular song
the future of Vietnamese music
modern folk song (dân ca)

170. Questions for Discussion
Why is Vietnam more “Westernized” in some ways than the other nations?
Why is theater so important and popular in Vietnam?
What has Vietnam gained from it centuries-long contact with China?
How do Vietnamese puppets differ from elsewhere?

171. Singapore

172. The nation
small island off the tip of Malaysia (comparable to Bahrain or Tonga in size)
four distinct cultures: Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Eurasian
population of 4.5 million (77% Chinese but also Malays and Indians)

173. The Chinese
opera (wayang), hand- and string-puppet theaters are important
minstrel tradition (zouchang) performed during festive seasons
chamber music from China’s Fujian province (nanguan)
Mandarin vocal music (xinyao)
staged urban performances with Western instruments (getai)

174. The Malays vocal genres accompanied by drums (kompang and hadrah)
traditional Malay vocal genre (dikir barat)
Arab/Persian vocal tradition (ghazal)
Malay operatic genre (bangsawan)
horse trance dancing (kuda kepang)

175. The Indians Hindustani and Karnatic classical music
bhajanai, film and temple music also predominate
Indian music and dance are prevalent at Indian festivals in Singapore
temples are patrons of Indian performing arts

176. Questions for Discussion
What are the differences between musics of the three main groups?
Is any of this music unique to Singapore, or is it all directly imported?
What does it mean to have multiple ethnic groups competing in a small nation?
Why do the Chinese perform theater so much more than the Malays or Indians?

177. Upland and Minority Peoples of Mainland Southeast Asia

178. Language families of the mainland
division of the mainland into lowland and upland
151 ethnic groups, with minority groups outnumbering the majority groups
minority groups tend to live in the upland areas

179. Language families of the mainland (cont.)
four main language families on the mainland
Sino-Tibetan family
Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) family
Tai family
Austro-Asiatic family

180. Minority musics of Vietnam
uplands people live near Cambodia, Laos, and China
lowlands people live near the majority Viet people
bronze gong ensembles are most representative of the uplands musics
upland culture divides into two regions: northeast and northwest

181. Minority musics of Vietnam (cont.)
songs
courtship and friendship
narratives
ritual songs
lullabies and other songs

182. Minority musics of Vietnam (cont.)
central highlands musical instruments
gongs
xylophones (wooden and bamboo)
lithophones
aerophones (flutes, oboes, free-reeds, animal horns)
chordophones (zithers, spike fiddles)

183. Minority musics of Vietnam (cont.)
northern musical instruments
bronze gong ensembles
wooden trough idiophone
Lutes
the Hmong have numerous musical instruments

184. Music of the upland minorities in Burma, Laos, and Thailand
the Golden Triangle upland people mostly live in small villages
slash-and-burn agriculture impacts all aspects of their lives
dancing to simple accompaniment
simple traditional songs (no professional musicians)
pentatonic scales
prevalence of animism

185. Sino-Tibetan language family
the Lahu; approximately 600,000 people
new year celebration includes free-reed mouth organ and love songs
harvest celebration includes mouth organ, cymbal, gong and drum
songs for weddings, funerals, healing, narration, and lullabies
instruments: free-reed mouth organ (naw) and Jew’s harp (ata)

186. Sino-Tibetan language family (cont.)
the Akha (Tibeto-Burman); approximately 443, 000 people
many annual ceremonies and traditional festivals
instruments: lute (döm), mouth organ (lachi), Jew’s harp (chau)
songs for courtship, healing, funerals

187. Sino-Tibetan language family (cont.)
the Lisu (Tibeto-Burman); approximately 350,000 people
close attention to ritual and festival life
instrumental music is metered; vocal music is not
songs for courtship, celebrations, religious events
instruments: free-reed mouth organ (fulu), flute (julü), and lute (subü)

188. Sino-Tibetan language family (cont.)
the Karen (Tibeto-Burman); approximately 3.4 million people
ceremonies of prayer and propitiation
songs for weddings, courtship, funerals, children, drinking, etc.
legends accompanied by the harp (tünak)
instruments: harp (tünak), horn (kui), bronze drum (mahoratuk), bamboo tube zither (pap law), 3-stringed lute (tha)

189. The Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) language family
the Kmhmu; approximately 500,000 people
chanting and gong playing used in shamanic ritual
songs for entertaining guests, courtship, weddings, harvests, new year
instruments: flutes (pii, tot), free-reed mouth organ (khen), lute (saw), Jew’s harp, bamboo beaters (klt), clapper (taaw taaw), gong, and bronze drum

190. The Tai-Kadai language family
the Shan; approximately 6 million people
three major ensembles (Buddhist ceremonies, dramas, and entertainment)
songs for social occasions, courtship, new year, planting and harvesting, fishing, drinking, cradle songs (no funeral songs)
instruments: xylphone (ranat thum), violin, drum (taphon), tuned drum set (patt waiñ), cymbals (chap), fiddle (toro), wooden block (sengkok)

191. The Miao-Yao language family
the Yao; approximately 2 million people
weddings, funerals, harvests, new year’s festivals
music related to life-cycle events and ceremonies
the Hmong; approximately 6 million people
songs for courtship, weddings, funerals, new year’s festival
instruments: free-reed mouth organ (qeej), Jew’s harp (ncas), free-reed pipe (raj nplaim), flute (raj pus li), two-stringed bowed fiddle (xi xov)

192. The Miao-Yao language family (cont.)
The Hmong (cont.)
ritual music
funerals
courtship and weddings

193. The Indigenous Peoples (Orang Asli) of the Malay Peninsula
tribal groupings of the Semang, the Senoi, and the Orang Melayu Asli
lifestyle and its implications for musical culture
instruments are easily made and discarded
2-string chordophone (kereb)
xylophone (kongkong)
tube zither (kerantung)

194. The Indigenous Peoples (Orang Asli) of the Malay Peninsula (cont.)
animist religious philosophy and shamanistic practice
Semang animism and musical shamanism
Senoi Temiar singers and healers in a modern world
acculturated music of the Orang Melayu Asli
timbre as a significant musical parameter

195. The Indigenous Peoples (Orang Asli) of the Malay Peninsula (cont.)
aboriginal Malays summon spirits using instruments
tube zither (kerantung)
Jew’s harp
horizontal flute (buhbut)
thigh xylophone (kongkong)
oboe (serunai)

196. The lowland Cham approximately 155,000 people
the Cham are Malays who came to Vietnam from Java arounc 200 CE
influences from India and Islam
instrumental genres take their names from dances
instruments include oboe, drums, fiddles, gong, bells

197. Questions for Discussion
What do the mainland upland people have in common with each other?
What is the role of the spirit world among the upland people?
How will courtship change as a result of modernization?
How do the upland and lowland minorities differ from each other in geography as well as musical culture?