1. SOLID EARTH
FINAL REVIEW

2. Layers crust, mantle, outer core, inner core

3. Inner core- solid iron & nickel Outer core- liquid iron & nickel, where magnetic field is generated

4. Mantle makes up most of Earth’s mass

5. Lithosphere- is the solid crust & upper mantle (the tectonic plates)

6. Asthenosphere- soft layer of upper mantle (convection currents)

7. Pressure and temperature increase with depth

9. Magma is formed when rock melts

11. Primary (p waves ) are compression waves

12. Secondary waves (s waves) are shear waves

13. P waves can travel through BOTH solids and liquid
S waves can only travel through solids

14. Seismic waves arrive in this order- P, S, then surface

15. Indirect evidence of the interior is obtained by studying seismic waves

16. Ocean crust gets denser as it gets cooler
LESS DENSE
MORE DENSE

17. Oceanic crust is denser and younger than continental
Continental crust is older than oceanic

18. Oceanic crust is mostly basalt Continental crust is mostly granite
Oceanic Continental

19. Sediments get thicker and older away from the mid-ocean ridge

20. Convection currents in the mantle move tectonic plates

21. Seismographs record ground movements

22. Earthquakes can cause; building collapse, soil liquefaction, and a tsunami

23. E3.4B Richter scale measures ground movement
Moment magnitude scale measures energy released
Mercalli scale measures earthquake damage

24. Earthquakes with a shallow focus are more likely to cause severe damage

25. A bulge in the surface of a volcano is a warning sign
A "bulge" developed on the north side of Mount St. Helens as magma pushed up within the peak. Angle and slope-distance measurements to the bulge indicated it was growing at a rate of up to five feet (1.5 meters) per day. By May 17, part of the volcano's north side had been pushed upwards and outwards over 450 feet (135 meters). The view is from the northeast.

26. Movements along a fault are measured with; tilt meters, laser ranging devices, and GPS satellites

27. E3.4C
A Tsunami is a giant wave caused by an underwater earthquake

28. Aftershocks can cause more damage and injuries so people should NOT go back inside

29. Actual ground movement is least likely to cause deaths during earthquakes

30. Deaths occur from collapsing dams flooding, falling debris, and fires from broken electric and gas lines

31. E3.4C
Types of rock and soil under buildings affect how it responds to an earthquake

32. Seismic gaps, foreshocks and changes in rock help forecast earthquakes
Japan’s March 11, 2011 Earthquake

33. Earthquake risk is high on the Pacific coast because the Pacific and North American plates meet at the San Andreas Fault

34. Most EQ and Volcanoes occur at plate boundaries and where stress on the rock is greatest

36. Transform boundary forms when plates slip past each other

37. A fault is a break in the Earth’s crust

38. Heat transfer by direct contact is conduction, by flowing in a fluid is convection and through open space is radiation.

39. Wegener’s hypothesis stated the continents were once joined as Pangaea and then broke apart.

40. Wegener’s hypothesis stated the continents were once joined as Pangaea and then broke apart.

41. Convection currents occur because heated material becomes less dense and rises

42. The density of each plate determines what occurs when plates collide

43. Plate tectonic theory explains why and how continents move

44. A rift valley forms when two continental plates diverge

45. Sea-floor spreading causes new ocean floor to constantly be produced

46. When oceanic and continental plates collide the oceanic plate subducts under the continental

47. An underwater mountain chain formed by sea-floor spreading is called a mid-ocean ridge

48. Along mid-ocean ridges molten material rises from the mantle

49. Uplifting brings rocks to Earth’s surface where they then can erode

50. The Himalayas formed by the process of convergence.

51. Divergence forms rift valleys and the mid-ocean ridges

52. Deep-ocean trenches form in a subduction zone

53. In plate movement speed = distance / time so a plate that moved 550 cm in 50 years moved at a rate of 550/50= 11 cm/year

54. Carbon¹⁴ dating works because of carbon in living things, it doesn’t work on the moon

55. The half-life of a radioactive element is the time it takes for ½ of the atoms to decay

56. Radioactive decay is when atoms of an unstable element break down to form another element

57. Fossils provide evidence for; changes in the Earth’s surface, how environments have changed over time, how groups of organisms have changed over time.

58. Fossils are most common in sedimentary rocks

59. Index fossils were; common while alive, existed for a short distinct time, geographically widespread, and easily recognizable

60. Index fossils tell the relative age of rocks
Index fossils tell the relative age of rocks. Rocks with identical index fossils are about the same age

61. Index fossils tell the relative age of rocks
Index fossils tell the relative age of rocks. Rocks with identical index fossils are about the same age
USGS

62. Earth is about 4.6 billion years old

63. Most of the atmosphere now is Nitrogen

64. The atmosphere formed during the precambrian time

65. The impact hypothesis states an asteroid or meteorite from space caused the extinction of dinosaurs.

66. The gradual development of new organisms from preexisting ones is called evolution

67. Geologic time scale is a record of life forms and geologic events in Earth’s history

68. The longest geologic time is the precambrian

69. Fossils are rare in precambrian rocks because most precambrian organisms had soft body parts that did not form fossils

70. E5.3C cont.
Blue green bacteria used photosynthesis to make food and produced more oxygen in the atmosphere. Photosynthesis produces oxygen

71. During the rise of life a great number of different organisms evolved

72. Ozone layer formation allowed plants and animals to move out of the water onto land during the Paleozoic Era

73. The Permian mass extinction probably occurred because organisms could not live in the new climate created by Pangaea

74. Earth’s ‘second atmosphere’ was made of mostly carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapor

75. The Cenozoic mass extinction of large mammals probably occurred because of the ice ages

76. Volcanic out gassing helped form the Earth’s atmosphere
Done E5.3C

77. The geologic time scale is divided into eras and periods

78. Some Sedimentary rocks form from fragments of other rocks

79. Steps to form sedimentary rocks from igneous rock are erosion, deposition, compaction and cementation- erosion removes and transports rock materials
Lynn S. Fichter © 2000

80. Rocks change to metamorphic rock by heat and pressure

81. Rock cycle is the process rocks follow to change to other rocks; igneous, sedimentary, & metamorphic

82. Large crystals form in granite when it cools slowly

83. Plate collisions affect the rock cycle when one plate is forced down to the heat of the mantle and produces metamorphic rock

84. During an Earthquake stand in a doorway or crouch under a desk

85. Fossils of tropical plants are found in Antarctica giving evidence plates moved

86. Sonar is used to map the ocean floor

87. The Pacific Ring of Fire is a zone of volcanoes and earthquakes
USGS

88. The Pacific Ring of Fire is a zone of volcanoes and earthquakes

89. The mantle is heated by earth’s core energy and radioactivity

90. Past earthquakes are studied to predict where future earthquakes may occur

91. The composition of the interior affects the speed and direction of seismic waves

92. Subduction is one plate going under another

93. Volcanic mountains form at a convergent boundary of two plates

94. Following are the slides #73-end combined

95. The Permian mass extinction probably occurred because organisms could not live in the new climate created by Pangaea
Earth’s ‘second atmosphere’ was made of mostly carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapor
The Cenozoic mass extinction of large mammals probably occurred because of the ice ages
Volcanic out gassing helped form the Earth’s atmosphere

96. The geologic time scale is divided into eras and periods
Some Sedimentary rocks form from fragments of other rocks
Steps to form sedimentary rocks from igneous rock are erosion, deposition, compaction and cementation- erosion removes and transports rock materials

97. Rocks change to metamorphic rock by heat and pressure
Rock cycle is the process rocks follow to change to other rocks; igneous, sedimentary, & metamorphic
latals form in granite when it cools slowly form in granite when it cools slowly

98. Plate collisions affect the rock cycle when one plate is forced down to the heat of the mantle and produces metamorphic rock
During an Earthquake stand in a doorway or crouch under a desk Fossils of tropical plants are found in Antarctica giving evidence plates moved
The mantle is heated by earth’s core energy and radioactivity