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Islam, Women, and Sports in Sub-Saharan Africa Martha Saavedra Center for African Studies, UC Berkeley October 2006
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Q: “Islam’s impact on women’s sport?” ‘Islam’ is not an obstacle to the participation of women in sport. Islam can shape the sporting experience of people as gendered subjects. Impact varies widely, depending on Interpretation Practice Politicization by individuals, organizations & states
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Outline Three issues Clarifying Question Elements involved? Transnational and global nature of contemporary sport Theology and Practice Islam and Sport Abuja 2003 Continued…
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Outline -continued Examples from Senegal Sudan Nigeria Zanzibar and South Africa
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Clarifying the Question: Intersections? IslamGender Sport
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IslamGender Sport Emphasis on lived experience, not on theological understandings Need for spatial and historical grounding anticipating variation across space and time Generalizations - tentative
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Clarifying the Question: Elements? Islam Gender Sport Distinguish influence of Islam from other factors – educational opportunities general availability of facilities living standards leisure time, etc
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Clarifying the Question: Elements? Islam Gender Sport Distinguish influence of Islam from other factors – effect of colonialism different colonial practices & institutions traditions & customs varied & mutable
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Clarifying the Question: Elements? Islam Gender Sport Distinguish influence of Islam from other factors – Political Economy Debt burdens Declining terms of trade Dependency Structural Adjustment Poverty
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Clarifying the Question: Elements? Islam Gender Sport Not interchangeable with “women,” even if women are main concern Ask question carefully - “Does a particular articulation of Islam prevent females from pursuing sport in ways that do not prevent men from pursuing sport?”
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Clarifying the Question: Elements? Islam Gender Sport Address gender more broadly for increased understanding – “How does nexus of sport and Islam shapes masculinity?” can lend insight into how sport shapes femininity.
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Nature of Sport itself Implicated in fabric of political and social life. Definition: competitive physical activity guided by rules with some reference to an institutional framework
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Nature of Sport in Africa Most organized sport influenced or structured by Western practice.
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Nature of Sport in Africa Most organized sport influenced or structured by Western practice. Hence, carries historical and cultural baggage.
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Nature of Sport in Africa Most organized sport influenced or structured by Western practice. Hence, carries historical and cultural baggage. Weberian rationalization (Guttman 1978)
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Nature of Sport in Africa Most organized sport influenced or structured by Western practice. Hence, carries historical and cultural baggage. Weberian rationalization (Guttman 1978) Particular Western values – Democratic equality Corporate capitalist exploitation
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Nature of Sport in Africa More Western baggage Gendered systems of sport Hegemonic heterosexual hyper-masculinity
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Nature of Sport in Africa More Western baggage Gendered systems of sport Hegemonic heterosexual hyper-masculinity Posited against any homosexual visibility
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Nature of Sport in Africa More Western baggage Gendered systems of sport Hegemonic heterosexual hyper-masculinity Posited against any homosexual visibility Rules out muscular femininity For binary and exclusive definition of sexuality
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Nature of Sport in Africa More Western baggage Gendered systems of sport Hegemonic heterosexual hyper-masculinity Posited against any homosexual visibility Rules out muscular femininity In a binary and exclusive definition of sexuality Women’s pursuit of sport Always problematic Challenge to hegemonic norms of sexuality
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Nature of Sport in Africa Sport, gender & Islam in Africa Marked by Western trajectories As much as by local practices of Islam Which also have transnational influences
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Nature of Sport in Africa Interaction of local – global Variable outcomes in African settings Western outcomes not a teleological paradigm that is desirable or inevitable
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Nature of Sport in Africa Interaction of local – global Variable outcomes in African settings Western outcomes not a teleological paradigm that is desirable or inevitable Yes, Western hegemony is formidible But – local is also powerful Can also influence global…
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Nature of Sport in Africa Multiple Trajectories!
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Islam and Sport Sport Body is Central Physical manipulation Physicality Mapped with forces Political Economic Social Cultural Psychological Spiritual
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Islam and Sport Sport Body is Central Physical manipulation Physicality Mapped with forces Magnifies beliefs about physical possibilities Including, sexual difference
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Islam and Sport Sport Body is Central Physical manipulation Physicality Mapped with forces Magnifies beliefs about physical possibilities Including, sexual difference Islam Concern for body Piety & Modesty Health & Hygiene Defensive preparation Intellectual and moral education
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Islam and Sport Sport Body is Central Physical manipulation Physicality Mapped with forces Magnifies beliefs about physical possibilities Including, sexual difference Islam Concern for body Piety & Modesty Health & Hygiene Defensive preparation Intellectual and moral education For some Regulation of clothing for women AND men while engaged in physical activity
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Clothing
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Islam and Sport Goal of sport critical
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Islam and Sport Goal of sport critical e.g. Seeking fame and glory takes away from worshiping Allah
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Islam and Sport Goal of sport critical e.g. Seeking fame and glory takes away from worshiping Allah Avoid deviations Commercialism Gambling Doping The occult Mixing of sexes
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Islam and Sport For some, problem of global (“Western”) forms of sport Commercialized Glory and fame central Media – public – exposure Especially problematic for females Not a problem for all…
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Abuja, All Africa Games 2003 Female Representation on National Teams at October 2003 All-Africa Games, Abuja, Nigeria African countries with predominantly Muslim populations do send female athletes, who often make up significant portions of the national teams. AND countries with predominantly Muslim populations often do better then countries with smaller Muslim populations.
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Senegal Sport primarily masculine venture Significant room for women Dakar Women’s Basketball Third most popular spectator sport Other sports Multiple levels of participation
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Senegal Obstacles Gender neutral Individual & infrastructural poverty – Pas des moyens
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Senegal Obstacles Gender neutral Individual & infrastructural poverty – Pas des moyens Gendered Broad socio-cultural perspective
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Senegal Obstacles Gender neutral Individual & infrastructural poverty – Pas des moyens Gendered Broad socio-cultural perspective Islam not primary factor Though may be used to justify Relatively tolerant form of Islam (Callaway & Creevey)
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Senegal Obstacles Gender neutral Gendered Broad socio-cultural perspective Not particularly Islamic Found across Africa and beyond (even in US)
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Senegal Obstacles Gender neutral Gendered Broad socio-cultural perspective Femininity Fertility Ideal body-type
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Senegal Ideal Body Type Women’s form representing substance of Herself Her family Especially her husband
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Senegal Ideal Body Type Women’s form representing substance of Herself Her family Especially her husband Muscles Indicate physical labor
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Senegal Ideal Body Type With urbanization emerges Drianke Pharmaceutical misused to increase appetite so as to gain weight and appear more substantial.
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Senegal Ideal Body Type With urbanization emerges Drianke Disquette
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Senegal Ideal Body Type Avoid physical education Doctor’s note Counter forces supporting Athletic body Headmistress Role Models Adama Diop Mame Maty Mbengue Remunerative careers
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Senegal Role of Islam in sport? Surveys indicate not a big concern for female athletes Tolerant Not dismissed Studies, seminars Sent team to 3 rd Muslim Women’s Games in Tehran, October 2001 – post-9/11 solidarity.
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Senegal Ahmadu Bamba at the World Cup 2002
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Sudan Islam More restrictive practice for women in North
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Sudan Islam More restrictive practice for women in North Mitigated by class
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Sudan Outside Central Region and North War, drought, poverty inhibit all
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Sudan Orthodox Islam Dampened female participation in sport Like Senegal, avoid physical labor, e.g. wives and daughters in fields, if upwardly mobile
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Sudan Orthodox Islam Dampened female participation in sport Like Senegal, avoid physical labor, e.g. wives and daughters in fields, if upwardly mobile Physical labor for men also looked down on if upwardly mobile Making even men’s participation in sport potentially suspect.
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Sudan Orthodox Islam Dampened female participation in sport Like Senegal, avoid physical labor, e.g. wives and daughters in fields, if upwardly mobile Being elite – tied to being good Sudanese Muslim (Doornbus 1988)
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Sudan Effect of class Among educated and confident elite Muslim girls active in sport
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Sudan Effect of class Among educated and confident elite Muslim girls active in sport PE in British educational system Volleyball, basketball, swimming University of Khartoum Pool – reserved days for female students
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Sudan Effect of class Among educated and confident elite Muslim girls active in sport PE in British educational system Volleyball, basketball, swimming University of Khartoum Pool – reserved days for female students But usually not beyond post-secondary education
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Sudan Most do not have access to education Quotas on girls Parents reluctance
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Sudan Most do not have access to education Physical activity not avoided Intense – chores – household, farm, childcare, etc Ali Mazrui’s suggestion More sports that draw on daily laboring skills (1987)
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Sudan More restrictions September Laws 1983 Islamicization after 1989 coup Martial training for boys Declining economy and civil war Fewer elites internationally
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Sudan More restrictions September Laws 1983 Islamicization after 1989 coup Martial training for boys Declining economy and civil war Fewer elite athletes internationally Still, very elite still active 2003 Abuja – one female athlete – tennis player
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Sudan January 2004, in 2 days, passport for Yamile Aldama Cuban born triple jumper.
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Sudan January 2004, in 2 days, passport for Yamile Aldama Cuban born triple jumper. Olympic hopeful Sudan – international stature Hijab?
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2004 Triple Jump Gold Francoise Mbango Etone of Cameroon
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New Sudanese Athlete Nawal el Jack Set the girl’s record (and a personal best at 51.83) in the 400 meters at the World Youth Championships in July 2005 in Morocco. Competed at the World Championships in Helsinki in 2005, though did not place. Where does she train? - I don’t know
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Nigeria February 2003 Northern State, Niger, bans women’s football “not in conformity with our culture.” Abdul-Khadir Kure, Governor
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Nigeria Zamfara in 2000 Declared shari’a law Immediately women’s football banned “the sport is against the teachings of Islam” state director of sports
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Nigeria Moot? Many parents in Northern Nigeria would not let daughters play anyway.
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Nigeria Complex, diverse, multifaceted country Colonial period Strong, centralized Islamic states continued unlike in Senegal Islam less tolerant of secular In North, female seclusion
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Nigeria Current national and international climate has lead to: Hardening of identities Influence from Islamicists from Saudi and elsewhere Wahabism
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Nigeria Why focus on women’s football? Success of national women’s football team Challenge to gender norms Connection to practices in the South Mercy Akide
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Nigeria Miss World Pageant Two weeks later Africa Cup for Women in South with no problems. Part of larger struggle within Nigeria Amina Lawal case Why football was singled out?
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Nigeria Marked as masculine sport in much of football loving world (not the US so much) Because men’s so globally popular? Male hegemony reinforced British FA’s ban on women’s football 1921 – 1971
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Nigeria Why football was singled out? Marked as masculine sport in much of football loving world (not the US so much) Because men’s so globally popular? Male hegemony reinforced British FA’s ban on women’s football 1921 – 1971 Issue of masculinity and football…
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Sport and Masculinity Muscular Christianity British colonial influence Zanzibar (Fair 1997) Local Islamic elite collaborate with British colonial administration Elevate men’s football Stamp out Ngoma dancing Within Ngoma – men dress as women
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Sport and Masculinity Zanzibar (Fair 1997) Within Ngoma – men dress as women “Vulgar and obscence” by elite “Effeminate” – Colonial administration Football Masculine!
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Sport and Masculinity Cape Town, South Africa (Nauright 1998) Muslim Coloured working class community Promoted rugby Discipline Social cohesion Manliness Character formation Muscular Islam Physical intimidation
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Sport and Masculinity Cape Town, South Africa (Nauright 1998) Muslim Coloured working class community Promoted rugby Muscular Islam Physical intimidation Required by setting Apartheid Class politics
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Sport and Masculinity Cape Town, South Africa (Nauright 1998) Muslim Coloured working class community Rugby and Muslim Coloured Identity Even girls played – when they were young As matured, steered to other sports Netball, softball
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Sport and Masculinity Cape Town, South Africa (Nauright 1998) Muslim Coloured working class community Rugby and Muslim Coloured Identity Even girls played – when they were young As matured, steered to other sports Netball, softball Women as supporters Knit scarves Sew uniforms
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Conclusions Islam part of set of factors Local trajectories Masculinity as well as femininity More research needed!
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