1. Review Chapters 16-27

2. Chapter 16: Molecular Genetics
You Must Know:
The structure of DNA
The major steps in replication
The difference between replication, transcription, and translation
“Central Dogma”
How DNA is packaged into a chromosome

3. Experiments:
Griffin
Hershey and Chase
Chargaff
Meselson-Stahl

4. DNA Structure

5. Replication

6. Proofreading and repair
Mismatch Repair
A DNA polymerase does this as soon as nucleotide is added
other proteins do this as well (they continually monitor)
Excision Repair
enzyme nuclease cuts segment of strand containing damage
resulting gap is filled (A DNA polymerase and DNA ligase)

7. DNA packing

8. Chapter 17: From Gene to Protein
You Must Know
The key terms gene expression, transcription, and translation
How to explain the process of transcription
How eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription
The steps to translation
How point mutations can change the amino acid sequence of a protein

11. Translation

12. Chapter 18: Regulation of Gene Expression
You Must Know
The functions of the three parts of an operon
The role of repressor genes in operons
The impact of DNA methylation and histone acetylation on gene expression
The role of oncogenes, proto-oncogenes, and tumor suppressor genes in cancer

13. Operons

14. Eukaryotic Gene Expression

16. Chapter 19: Viruses You Must Know The components of a virus
The differences between lytic and lysogenic cycles

17. Structure
Capsid
Envelope
DNA or RNA

18. Replication

19. Information flow in cells can be regulated by various mechanisms.
Describe the role of THREE of the following in the regulation of protein
synthesis:
RNA splicing
repressor proteins
methylation
siRNA
(b) Information flow can be altered by mutation. Describe THREE different
types of mutations and their effect on protein synthesis.
(c) Identify TWO environmental factors that increase the mutation rate in an
organism, and discuss their effect on the genome of the organism.
(d) Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in the phenotype caused by
mechanisms other than changes in the DNA sequence. Describe ONE
example of epigenetic inheritance.

20. Chapter 20: DNA Technology and Genomics
You Must Know
The terminology of biotechnology
The steps in gene cloning with special attention to the biotechnology tools that make cloning possible
The key ideas that make PCR possible
How gel electrophoresis

21. Terminology Genetic Engineering Biotechnology Recombinant DNA
Gene Cloning
Restriction Enzymes
Restriction sites
Restriction fragments
Sticky ends

22. Gene Cloning

23. PCR

24. Electrophoresis

25. 4. The flow of genetic information from DNA to protein in
eukaryotic cells is called the central dogma of biology.
(a) Explain the role of each of the following in protein
synthesis in eukaryotic cells.
• RNA polymerase
• Spliceosomes (snRNPs)
• Codons
• Ribosomes
• tRNA
(b) Cells regulate both protein synthesis and protein activity.
Discuss TWO specific mechanisms of protein regulation in
eukaryotic cells.
(c) The central dogma does not apply to some viruses. Select
a specific virus or type of virus and explain how it
deviates from the central dogma.

26. Chapter 21
“Variation in molecular units provides cells with a wider range of functions”
This chapter serves to connect genetics to evolution.
Illustrative examples listed for this chapter are:
Different types of hemoglobin
MHC proteins
Chlorophylls
Molecular diversity of antibodies in response to an antigen

27. Chapter 22: Descent with Modification
You Must Know
Natural selection is a major mechanism of evolution
Biological evolution is supported by scientific evidence from many disciplines, including math
Graphical analysis of allele frequencies in a population
Application of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation
Graphical analyses of allele frequencies in a population
Analysis of sequence data sets
Analysis of phylogenetic trees
Construction of phylogenetic trees based on sequence data

28. Evidence for evolution
Direct observations
The fossil record
Homology
Homologous structures vs. Analogous
Convergent evolution
Embryonic homologies
Vestigial organs
Molecular homologies
Biogeography
Continental drift
Endemic species

29. Chapter 23: The Evolution of Populations
You Must Know
How mutation and sexual reproduction each produce genetic variation
The conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
How to use the Hardy-Weinberg equation to calculate allelic frequencies and to test whether a population is evolving

30. Practice
Suppose in a plant population that red flowers (R) are dominant to white flowers (r). In a population of 500 individuals, 25% show the recessive phenotype. How many individuals would you expect to be homozygous dominant and heterozygous for this trait?

31. Some terms Natural selection Genetic drift Gene flow
Founder effect
Bottleneck effect
Gene flow
Directional selection
Disruptive selection
Stabilizing selection
Heterozygote advantage

32. Chapter 24: The Origin of Species
You Must Know
The difference between microevolution and macroevolution
The biological concept of species
Prezygotic and postzygotic barriers that maintain reproductive isolation in natural populations
How allopatric and sympatric speciation are similar and different
How an autopolyploid or an allopolyploid chromosomal change can lead to sympatric speciation
How punctuated equilibrium and gradualism describe two different tempos of speciation

33. Pre and Post Zygotic Isolation
Habitat
Behavioral
Temporal
Mechanical
Gametic
Reduced Hybrid viability
Reduced Hybrid fertility
Hybrid Breakdown

35. Autopolyploid

36. Allopolyploid

37. Adaptive Radiation

38. 3. Reproduction can be either asexual or sexual.
(a) Using a specific example, describe how organisms can
reproduce asexually. Discuss TWO evolutionary
advantages of asexual reproduction.
(b) Identify THREE ways that sexual reproduction increases
genetic variability. For each, explain how it increases genetic
diversity among the offspring.
(c) Discuss TWO prezygotic isolating mechanisms that prevent
hybridization between two species. Include in your discussion
an example of each mechanism.

39. 4. Phylogeny reflects the evolutionary history of organisms.
(a) Discuss TWO mechanisms of speciation that lead to the development of
separate species from a common ancestor.
(b) Explain THREE methods that have been used to investigate the phylogeny of
organisms. Describe a strength or weakness of each method.
(c) The two phylogenetic trees represent the relationship of whales to six other
mammals. All of the organisms shown have a pulley-shaped astragalus bone in
the ankle except for the whale.
• For each tree, describe a monophyletic group, the closest relative to the whale, and the point at which the pulley astragalus was lost or gained.
• Based on the principle of parsimony (the simplest explanation is the best) and the genomic information in the table shown, identify which tree is the best representation of the evolutionary relationship of these animals, and justify your answer.

40. Chapter 25: The History of Life on Earth
You Must Know
The age of the Earth and when prokaryotic and eukaryotic life emerged.
Characteristics of the early planet and its atmosphere
How Miller and Urey tested the Oparin- Haldane hypothesis and what they learned
Methods used to date fossils and rocks
Evidence for endosymbiosis
How continental drift can explain the current distribution of species.

41. Chapter 26: Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
You Must Know
The taxonomic categories and how they indicate relatedness
How systematics is used to develop phylogenetic trees
The three domains of life including their similarities and their differences

42. Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships

43. 3. Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species.
(a) The evolution of a species is dependent on changes in the genome of the
species. Identify TWO mechanisms of genetic change, and explain how each
affects genetic variation.
(b) Based on the data in the table below, draw a phylogenetic tree that reflects the
evolutionary relationships of the organisms based on the differences in their
cytochrome c amino-acid sequences and explain the relationships of the
organisms. Based on the data, identify which organism is most closely related
to the chicken and explain your choice.
(c) Describe TWO types of evidence—other than the comparison of proteins
—that can be used to determine the phylogeny of organisms. Discuss one
strength of each type of evidence you described.

44. Three Domains Nuclear Envelop No Yes Membrane-enclosed organelles
Characteristic
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
Nuclear Envelop No
Yes
Membrane-enclosed organelles
Introns
Histone proteins assoc. with DNA
Circular chromosome

45. Chapter 27: Bacteria You Must Know: Electrophoresis
Plasmid-based transformation
Restriction enzyme analysis of DNA