1. Problem Solving and Creativity
Chapter 11
Problem Solving and Creativity

2. Introduction
problem solving—used when you want to reach a certain goal, but the solution is not immediately obvious and obstacles block your path
initial state
goal state
obstacles
thinking—requires you to go beyond the information you were given, so you can reach a goal
transformation of knowledge
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

3. Understanding the Problem
understanding the problem—construct a mental representation of the problem, based on the information provided in the problem and your own previous experience
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

4. Understanding the Problem
Paying Attention to Important Information
identifying and then attending to the most relevant information
Bransford and Stein (1984)
algebra story problems
distracting negative thoughts
effective problem solvers read the description of a problem very carefully, paying particular attention to inconsistencies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

5. Understanding the Problem
Methods of Representing the Problem
Symbols
translating words into symbols
oversimplification
misremembering the problem
Matrices
matrix—chart showing all possible combinations of items
most useful for complex, stable, categorical information
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

6. Understanding the Problem
Methods of Representing the Problem
Diagrams
instructions for assembling objects
hierarchical tree diagram
graphs
Visual Images
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

7. Understanding the Problem
Situated Cognition: The Importance of Context
situated-cognition approach—our ability to solve a problem is tied into the specific context in which we learned to solve that problem
abstract intelligence or aptitude tests often fail to measure real-life problem solving
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

8. Understanding the Problem
Situated Cognition: The Importance of Context
real-life cognition more complex than traditional cognitive approach
information-rich environments
social information
ecological validity
transfer failure
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

9. Problem-Solving Strategies
algorithm
always produces a solution
sometimes inefficient
exhaustive search—try all possible answers
heuristic
general rule
strategy in which you ignore some alternatives and explore only those alternatives that seem especially likely to produce a solution
costs and benefits of using heuristics
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

10. Problem-Solving Strategies
The Analogy Approach
analogy approach—using a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help in solving a new problem
cross-cultural research
creative breakthroughs
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

11. Problem-Solving Strategies
The Analogy Approach
The Structure of the Analogy Approach
determining the real problem
problem isomorphs
surface features
structural features
failure to see analogies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

12. Problem-Solving Strategies
The Analogy Approach
Factors Encouraging Appropriate Use of Analogies
hints on comparing problems can reveal structural similarities
trying several structurally similar problems before the target problem
training to sort problems into categories
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

13. Problem-Solving Strategies
The Means-Ends Heuristic
means-ends heuristic
identify the "ends" you want and then figure out the "means" to reach them
divide into subproblems
reducing the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each subproblem
can be used in either forward or backward direction
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

14. Problem-Solving Strategies
The Means-Ends Heuristic
Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic
Greeno (1974)—Hobbits-and-Orcs problem
organizing a sequence of moves to solve a subproblem
sometimes the solution requires temporarily increasing the distance to the goal
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

15. Problem-Solving Strategies
The Means-Ends Heuristic
Computer Simulation
computer simulation—computer program that will perform a task the same way that a human would
Newell and Simon's General Problem Solver
difficulties with ill-defined problems—problems where the goal is not obvious
Anderson's ACT model and "cognitive tutors"
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

16. Problem-Solving Strategies
The Hill-Climbing Heuristic
hill-climbing heuristic—when you reach a choice point, choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal state
useful when only the immediate next step can be seen
less direct alternative may have greater long-term benefits
encourages short-term goals, rather than long-term solutions
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

17. Problem-Solving Strategies
Individual Differences: Cross-Cultural Comparisons in Problem-Solving Strategies
Güss and Wiley (2007)
students in U.S., Brazil, India
questionnaire on preferences in problem-solving strategies
frequency of use
effectiveness
ease of use
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

18. Cross-Cultural Comparisons in Problem-Solving Strategies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

19. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
bottom-up processing
top-down processing
Expertise
expertise—consistent exceptional performance on representative tasks for a particular area
Knowledge Base
Memory
memory skills of experts tend to be very specific
chess experts' memory is better only if the information fits a particular schema
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

20. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
Expertise
Problem-Solving Strategies
experts more likely to use the means-ends heuristic effectively
experts more likely to emphasize structural features when using the analogy approach
Speed and Accuracy
parallel processing
serial processing
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

21. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
Expertise
Metacognitive Skills
experts better than novices at monitoring their own problem solving
experts better at judging the difficulty of the problem, allocating time, recovering from errors
experts underestimate the amount of time novices will require to solve a problem in the experts' area of specialization
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

22. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
Mental Set
mental set—using the same solution from previous problems, even though the problem could be solved by a different, easier method
overactive top-down processing
Luchin's water-jar problem
fixed mindset
growth mindset
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

23. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
Functional Fixedness
functional fixedness—assign stable uses to an object and fail to think about the features of the object that might be useful in helping solve a problem
Duncker's candle problem
emergencies
cross-cultural studies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

24. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem Solving
our stereotypes can influence our beliefs about our own abilities
gender stereotypes
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

25. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem Solving
The Nature of Stereotype Threat
struggling with a popular stereotype may cause additional anxiety that may lead to less effective problem solving
stereotype threat—if you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype—and you think about your membership in that group—your performance may suffer
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

26. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem Solving
Research with Asian American Females
Shih and coauthors (1999)
compare the effects of two competing stereotypes using three groups of Asian American women
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

27. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem Solving
Research with Asian American Females
Shih and coauthors (1999) (continued)
1. Ethnicity-emphasis condition: One group of participants were asked to indicate their ethnicity and then answer several questions about their ethnic identity. Then they took a challenging math test. These women answered 54% of the questions correctly.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

28. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem Solving
Research with Asian American Females
Shih and coauthors (1999) (continued)
2. Control-group condition: A second group of participants did not answer any questions beforehand. They simply took the challenging math test. These women answered 49% of the questions correctly.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

29. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem Solving
Research with Asian American Females
Shih and coauthors (1999) (continued)
3. Gender-emphasis condition: A third group of participants were asked to indicate their gender and then answer several questions about their gender identity. Then they took the challenging math test. These women answered only 43% of the questions correctly.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

30. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem Solving
Research with Asian American Females
Ambady and coauthors (2001)
found similar pattern among Asian American girls
reminding them of their gender resulted in a decline in problem-solving scores
reminding them of their ethnicity did not
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

31. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem Solving
Research with European American Females
O'Brien and Crandall (2003)
math test identified as "known to show gender differences" vs. "known to show no gender differences"
Johns and coauthors (2005)
providing a brief description of stereotype threat greatly reduced gender differences in math-test scores
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

32. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
In Depth: Stereotypes and Problem Solving
Potential Explanations
arousal/anxiety and working memory
thought suppression reduces working memory capacity
interfere with the ability to construct problem- solving strategies
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

33. Stereotypes and Problem-Solving
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

34. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
Insight Versus Noninsight Problems
insight problem—seems impossible until sudden solution appears
noninsight problem—gradual solution
The Nature of Insight
gestalt psychologists vs. behaviorists
begin with inappropriate assumptions that need to be discarded
incubation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

35. Factors That Influence Problem Solving
Insight Versus Noninsight Problems
Metacognition During Problem Solving
Janet Metcalfe (1986)—people's confidence builds gradually for noninsight problems, but shows a sudden leap in solving insight problems
"feeling-of-warmth" scale
considering previous similar problems as well as the possibility that a different approach might be required
thinking "outside the box"
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

36. Metacognition During Problem-Solving
Figure 11.4 “Warmth Ratings” for Answers That Were Correct, as a Function of Time of Rating Prior to Answering.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

37. Creativity Definitions
similarities to and differences from other forms of problem solving
Definitions
novelty, originality
need to reach some goal
useful and appropriate
creativity—finding solutions that are novel, high quality, and useful
ordinary vs. exceptional thinking
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

38. Creativity Approaches to Creativity Divergent Production
measure creativity in terms of the number of different responses made
moderate correlations between divergent production and other judgments of creativity
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

39. Creativity Approaches to Creativity Investment Theory of Creativity
"buy low and sell high”
produce a creative idea when no one else is interested, then once the idea is popular, move on to a new creative project
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

40. Creativity Approaches to Creativity
Investment Theory of Creativity (continued)
Characteristics of “Wise Creative Investors”
intelligence
knowledge
motivation
encouraging environment
appropriate thinking style
appropriate personality
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

41. Creativity Task Motivation and Creativity
curiosity
intrinsic motivation—desire to work on a task for its own sake
extrinsic motivation—desire to work on a task to earn a promised reward
The Relationship Between Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity
people are most likely to be creative when they are working on a task that they truly enjoy
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

42. Creativity Task Motivation and Creativity
The Relationship Between Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity
students tend to produce less creative projects if they are working on these projects for external reasons
extrinsic motivation reduces creativity when it controls you or limits your options
extrinsic factors that provide useful information can enhance creativity
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

43. Algorithms vs Experts - Stereotypes and Problem-Solving
U.S. Navy Air Threat Assessment – Liebhaber & Feher, 2002
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

44. Algorithms vs Experts - Stereotypes and Problem-Solving
Information to Consider
Origin Coordinated
IFF mode Maneuvers
Intelligence 12. Wings clean
Airlane Range
Altitude Course
ES Own Support
Speed Visibility
CPA Weapon envelope
Feet wet
Algorithm -
Weigh all of the data.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11

45. Algorithms vs Experts - Stereotypes and Problem-Solving
What Experts Consider
Origin
IFF Mode
Intelligence
Altitude
Airlane ES
Heuristic -
Evaluate “important” data.
Experts have schemas for types of aircraft they are likely to encounter.
Very efficient and effective, but prone to many biases. See Ch. 12.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 11