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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece.

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Presentation on theme: "Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece."— Presentation transcript:

1 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece Lectures by Chris Romero Chapter 43 The Immune System

2 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Overview: Reconnaissance, Recognition, and Response An animal must defend itself – From the many dangerous pathogens it may encounter in the environment Two major kinds of defense have evolved that counter these threats – Innate immunity and acquired immunity

3 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Innate immunity – Is present before any exposure to pathogens and is effective from the time of birth – Involves nonspecific responses to pathogens Figure 43.1 3 m

4 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Acquired immunity, also called adaptive immunity – Develops only after exposure to inducing agents such as microbes, toxins, or other foreign substances – Involves a very specific response to pathogens

5 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings A summary of innate and acquired immunity INNATE IMMUNITY Rapid responses to a broad range of microbes ACQUIRED IMMUNITY Slower responses to specific microbes External defensesInternal defenses Skin Mucous membranes Secretions Phagocytic cells Antimicrobial proteins Inflammatory response Natural killer cells Humoral response (antibodies) Cell-mediated response (cytotoxic lymphocytes) Invading microbes (pathogens) Figure 43.2

6 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 43.1: Innate immunity provides broad defenses against infection A pathogen that successfully breaks through an animals external defenses – Soon encounters several innate cellular and chemical mechanisms that impede its attack on the body

7 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings External Defenses Intact skin and mucous membranes – Form physical barriers that bar the entry of microorganisms and viruses Certain cells of the mucous membranes produce mucus – A viscous fluid that traps microbes and other particles

8 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings In the trachea, ciliated epithelial cells – Sweep mucus and any entrapped microbes upward, preventing the microbes from entering the lungs Figure 43.3 10 m

9 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Secretions of the skin and mucous membranes – Provide an environment that is often hostile to microbes Secretions from the skin – Give the skin a pH between 3 and 5, which is acidic enough to prevent colonization of many microbes – Also include proteins such as lysozyme, an enzyme that digests the cell walls of many bacteria

10 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Internal Cellular and Chemical Defenses Internal cellular defenses – Depend mainly on phagocytosis Phagocytes, types of white blood cells – Ingest invading microorganisms – Initiate the inflammatory response

11 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Phagocytic Cells Phagocytes attach to their prey via surface receptors – And engulf them, forming a vacuole that fuses with a lysosome Figure 43.4 Pseudopodia surround microbes. 1 Microbes are engulfed into cell. 2 Vacuole containing microbes forms. 3 Vacuole and lysosome fuse. 4 Toxic compounds and lysosomal enzymes destroy microbes. 5 Microbial debris is released by exocytosis. 6 Microbes MACROPHAGE Vacuole Lysosome containing enzymes

12 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Macrophages, a specific type of phagocyte – Can be found migrating through the body – Can be found in various organs of the lymphatic system

13 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Adenoid Tonsil Lymph nodes Spleen Peyers patches (small intestine) Appendix Lymphatic vessels Masses of lymphocytes and macrophages Tissue cells Lymphatic vessel Blood capillary Lymphatic capillary Interstitial fluid Lymph node The lymphatic system – Plays an active role in defending the body from pathogens Interstitial fluid bathing the tissues, along with the white blood cells in it, continually enters lymphatic capillaries. 1 Figure 43.5 Fluid inside the lymphatic capillaries, called lymph, flows through lymphatic vessels throughout the body. 2 Within lymph nodes, microbes and foreign particles present in the circulating lymph encounter macro- phages, dendritic cells, and lymphocytes, which carry out various defensive actions. 3 Lymphatic vessels return lymph to the blood via two large ducts that drain into veins near the shoulders. 4

14 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Antimicrobial Proteins Numerous proteins function in innate defense – By attacking microbes directly of by impeding their reproduction

15 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings About 30 proteins make up the complement system – Which can cause lysis of invading cells and help trigger inflammation Interferons – Provide innate defense against viruses and help activate macrophages

16 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Inflammatory Response In local inflammation, histamine and other chemicals released from injured cells – Promote changes in blood vessels that allow more fluid, more phagocytes, and antimicrobial proteins to enter the tissues

17 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Major events in the local inflammatory response Figure 43.6 Pathogen Pin Macrophage Chemical signals Capillary Phagocytic cells Red blood cell Blood clotting elements Blood clot Phagocytosis Fluid, antimicrobial proteins, and clotting elements move from the blood to the site. Clotting begins. 2 Chemical signals released by activated macrophages and mast cells at the injury site cause nearby capillaries to widen and become more permeable. 1 Chemokines released by various kinds of cells attract more phagocytic cells from the blood to the injury site. 3 Neutrophils and macrophages phagocytose pathogens and cell debris at the site, and the tissue heals. 4

18 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Natural Killer Cells Natural killer (NK) cells – Patrol the body and attack virus-infected body cells and cancer cells – Trigger apoptosis in the cells they attack

19 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Invertebrate Immune Mechanisms Many invertebrates defend themselves from infection – By many of the same mechanisms in the vertebrate innate response

20 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 43.2: In acquired immunity, lymphocytes provide specific defenses against infection Acquired immunity – Is the bodys second major kind of defense – Involves the activity of lymphocytes

21 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Antigen- binding sites Antibody A Antigen Antibody B Antibody C Epitopes (antigenic determinants) An antigen is any foreign molecule – That is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits a response from them A lymphocyte actually recognizes and binds – To just a small, accessible portion of the antigen called an epitope Figure 43.7

22 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Antigen Recognition by Lymphocytes The vertebrate body is populated by two main types of lymphocytes – B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells) – Which circulate through the blood The plasma membranes of both B cells and T cells – Have about 100,000 antigen receptor that all recognize the same epitope

23 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings B Cell Receptors for Antigens B cell receptors – Bind to specific, intact antigens – Are often called membrane antibodies or membrane immunoglobulins Figure 43.8a Antigen- binding site Antigen- binding site Disulfide bridge Light chain Heavy chains Cytoplasm of B cell V A B cell receptor consists of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains linked by several disulfide bridges. (a) Variable regions Constant regions Transmembrane region Plasma membrane B cell V V C C C C V

24 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Antigen- Binding site chain Disulfide bridge chain T cell A T cell receptor consists of one chain and one chain linked by a disulfide bridge. (b) Variable regions Constant regions Transmembrane region Plasma membrane Cytoplasm of T cell T Cell Receptors for Antigens and the Role of the MHC Each T cell receptor – Consists of two different polypeptide chains Figure 43.8b V V C C

25 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings T cells bind to small fragments of antigens – That are bound to normal cell-surface proteins called MHC molecules MHC molecules – Are encoded by a family of genes called the major histocompatibility complex

26 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Infected cells produce MHC molecules – Which bind to antigen fragments and then are transported to the cell surface in a process called antigen presentation A nearby T cell – Can then detect the antigen fragment displayed on the cells surface

27 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Depending on their source – Peptide antigens are handled by different classes of MHC molecules

28 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 43.9a Infected cell Antigen fragment Class I MHC molecule T cell receptor (a) Cytotoxic T cell A fragment of foreign protein (antigen) inside the cell associates with an MHC molecule and is transported to the cell surface. 1 The combination of MHC molecule and antigen is recognized by a T cell, alerting it to the infection. 2 1 2 Class I MHC molecules, found on almost all nucleated cells of the body – Display peptide antigens to cytotoxic T cells

29 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Class II MHC molecules, located mainly on dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells – Display antigens to helper T cells 1 2 Figure 43.9b Microbe Antigen- presenting cell Antigen fragment Class II MHC molecule T cell receptor Helper T cell A fragment of foreign protein (antigen) inside the cell associates with an MHC molecule and is transported to the cell surface. 1 The combination of MHC molecule and antigen is recognized by a T cell, alerting it to the infection. 2 (b)

30 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lymphocyte Development Lymphocytes – Arise from stem cells in the bone marrow

31 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Newly formed lymphocytes are all alike – But they later develop into B cells or T cells, depending on where they continue their maturation Figure 43.10 Bone marrow Lymphoid stem cell B cell Blood, lymph, and lymphoid tissues (lymph nodes, spleen, and others) T cell Thymus

32 Generation of Lymphocyte Diversity by Gene Rearrangement Early in development, random, permanent gene rearrangement – Forms functional genes encoding the B or T cell antigen receptor chains

33 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings DNA of undifferentiated B cell DNA of differentiated B cell pre-mRNA mRNA Cap B cell B cell receptorLight-chain polypeptide Intron Variable region Constant region V1V1 V2V2 V3V3 V 4 –V 39 V 40 J1J1 J2J2 J3J3 J4J4 J5J5 V1V1 V2V2 V3V3 J5J5 V3V3 J5J5 V3V3 J5J5 VC C C C C Poly (A) Figure 43.11 Deletion of DNA between a V segment and J segment and joining of the segments 1 Immunoglobulin gene rearrangement Transcription of resulting permanently rearranged, functional gene 2 RNA processing (removal of intron; addition of cap and poly (A) tail) 3 4Translation

34 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Testing and Removal of Self-Reactive Lymphocytes As B and T cells are maturing in the bone and thymus – Their antigen receptors are tested for possible self-reactivity Lymphocytes bearing receptors for antigens already present in the body – Are destroyed by apoptosis or rendered nonfunctional

35 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Clonal Selection of Lymphocytes In a primary immune response – Binding of antigen to a mature lymphocyte induces the lymphocytes proliferation and differentiation, a process called clonal selection

36 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Clonal selection of B cells – Generates a clone of short-lived activated effector cells and a clone of long-lived memory cells Figure 43.12 Antigen molecules Antigen receptor B cells that differ in antigen specificity Antibody molecules Clone of memory cells Clone of plasma cells Antigen molecules bind to the antigen receptors of only one of the three B cells shown. The selected B cell proliferates, forming a clone of identical cells bearing receptors for the selecting antigen. Some proliferating cells develop into short-lived plasma cells that secrete antibodies specific for the antigen. Some proliferating cells develop into long-lived memory cells that can respond rapidly upon subsequent exposure to the same antigen.

37 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings In the secondary immune response – Memory cells facilitate a faster, more efficient response Antibody concentration (arbitrary units) 10 4 10 3 10 2 10 1 10 0 0 7 14 21 28 35 424956 Time (days) Figure 43.13 Antibodies to A Antibodies to B Primary response to antigen A produces anti- bodies to A 2 Day 1: First exposure to antigen A 1 Day 28: Second exposure to antigen A; first exposure to antigen B 3 Secondary response to anti- gen A produces antibodies to A; primary response to anti- gen B produces antibodies to B 4

38 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 43.3: Humoral and cell-mediated immunity defend against different types of threats Acquired immunity includes two branches – The humoral immune response involves the activation and clonal selection of B cells, resulting in the production of secreted antibodies – The cell-mediated immune response involves the activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells

39 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The roles of the major participants in the acquired immune response Figure 43.14 Humoral immune response Cell-mediated immune response First exposure to antigen Intact antigens Antigens engulfed and displayed by dendritic cells Antigens displayed by infected cells Activate Gives rise to B cell Helper T cell Cytotoxic T cell Plasma cells Memory B cells Active and memory helper T cells Memory cytotoxic T cells Active cytotoxic T cells Secrete antibodies that defend against pathogens and toxins in extracellular fluid Defend against infected cells, cancer cells, and transplanted tissues Secreted cytokines activate

40 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Helper T Cells: A Response to Nearly All Antigens Helper T cells produce CD4, a surface protein – That enhances their binding to class II MHC molecule–antigen complexes on antigen- presenting cells Activation of the helper T cell then occurs

41 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Activated helper T cells – Secrete several different cytokines that stimulate other lymphocytes

42 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The role of helper T cells in acquired immunity Figure 43.15 After a dendritic cell engulfs and degrades a bacterium, it displays bacterial antigen fragments (peptides) complexed with a class II MHC molecule on the cell surface. A specific helper T cell binds to the displayed complex via its TCR with the aid of CD4. This interaction promotes secretion of cytokines by the dendritic cell. Proliferation of the T cell, stimulated by cytokines from both the dendritic cell and the T cell itself, gives rise to a clone of activated helper T cells (not shown), all with receptors for the same MHC–antigen complex. The cells in this clone secrete other cytokines that help activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells. Cell-mediated immunity (attack on infected cells) Humoral immunity (secretion of antibodies by plasma cells) Dendritic cell Dendritic cell Bacterium Peptide antigen Class II MHC molecule TCR CD4 Helper T cell Cytokines Cytotoxic T cell B cell 1 2 3 1 2 3

43 Cytotoxic T Cells: A Response to Infected Cells and Cancer Cells Cytotoxic T cells make CD8 – A surface protein that greatly enhances the interaction between a target cell and a cytotoxic T cell

44 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytotoxic T cells – Bind to infected cells, cancer cells, and transplanted tissues Binding to a class I MHC complex on an infected body cell – Activates a cytotoxic T cell and differentiates it into an active killer

45 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytotoxic T cell Perforin Granzymes CD8 TCR Class I MHC molecule Target cell Peptide antigen Pore Released cytotoxic T cell Apoptotic target cell Cancer cell Cytotoxic T cell A specific cytotoxic T cell binds to a class I MHC–antigen complex on a target cell via its TCR with the aid of CD8. This interaction, along with cytokines from helper T cells, leads to the activation of the cytotoxic cell. 1 The activated T cell releases perforin molecules, which form pores in the target cell membrane, and proteolytic enzymes (granzymes), which enter the target cell by endocytosis. 2 The granzymes initiate apoptosis within the target cells, leading to fragmentation of the nucleus, release of small apoptotic bodies, and eventual cell death. The released cytotoxic T cell can attack other target cells. 3 1 2 3 Figure 43.16 The activated cytotoxic T cell – Secretes proteins that destroy the infected target cell

46 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings B Cells: A Response to Extracellular Pathogens Activation of B cells – Is aided by cytokines and antigen binding to helper T cells

47 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The clonal selection of B cells – Generates antibody-secreting plasma cells, the effector cells of humoral immunity

48 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 2 1 3 B cell Bacterium Peptide antigen Class II MHC molecule TCR Helper T cell CD4 Activated helper T cell Clone of memory B cells Cytokines Clone of plasma cells Secreted antibody molecules Endoplasmic reticulum of plasma cell Macrophage After a macrophage engulfs and degrades a bacterium, it displays a peptide antigen complexed with a class II MHC molecule. A helper T cell that recognizes the displayed complex is activated with the aid of cytokines secreted from the macrophage, forming a clone of activated helper T cells (not shown). 1 A B cell that has taken up and degraded the same bacterium displays class II MHC–peptide antigen complexes. An activated helper T cell bearing receptors specific for the displayed antigen binds to the B cell. This interaction, with the aid of cytokines from the T cell, activates the B cell. 2 The activated B cell proliferates and differentiates into memory B cells and antibody-secreting plasma cells. The secreted antibodies are specific for the same bacterial antigen that initiated the response. 3 Figure 43.17

49 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Antibody Classes The five major classes of antibodies, or immunoglobulins – Differ in their distributions and functions within the body

50 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The five classes of immunoglobulins Figure 43.18 First Ig class produced after initial exposure to antigen; then its concentration in the blood declines Most abundant Ig class in blood; also present in tissue fluids Only Ig class that crosses placenta, thus conferring passive immunity on fetus Promotes opsonization, neutralization, and agglutination of antigens; less effective in complement activation than IgM (see Figure 43.19) Present in secretions such as tears, saliva, mucus, and breast milk Triggers release from mast cells and basophils of histamine and other chemicals that cause allergic reactions (see Figure 43.20) Present primarily on surface of naive B cells that have not been exposed to antigens IgM (pentamer) IgG (monomer) IgA (dimer) IgE (monomer) J chain Secretory component J chain Transmembrane region IgD (monomer) Promotes neutralization and agglutination of antigens; very effective in complement activation (see Figure 43.19) Provides localized defense of mucous membranes by agglutination and neutralization of antigens (see Figure 43.19) Presence in breast milk confers passive immunity on nursing infant Acts as antigen receptor in antigen-stimulated proliferation and differentiation of B cells (clonal selection)

51 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Antibody-Mediated Disposal of Antigens The binding of antibodies to antigens – Is also the basis of several antigen disposal mechanisms – Leads to elimination of microbes by phagocytosis and complement-mediated lysis

52 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Antibody-mediated mechanisms of antigen disposal Binding of antibodies to antigens inactivates antigens by Viral neutralization (blocks binding to host) and opsonization (increases phagocytosis) Agglutination of antigen-bearing particles, such as microbes Precipitation of soluble antigens Activation of complement system and pore formation Bacterium Virus Bacteria Soluble antigens Foreign cell Complement proteins MAC Pore Enhances Phagocytosis Leads to Cell lysis Macrophage Figure 43.19

53 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Active and Passive Immunization Active immunity – Develops naturally in response to an infection – Can also develop following immunization, also called vaccination

54 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings In immunization – A nonpathogenic form of a microbe or part of a microbe elicits an immune response to an immunological memory for that microbe

55 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Passive immunity, which provides immediate, short-term protection – Is conferred naturally when IgG crosses the placenta from mother to fetus or when IgA passes from mother to infant in breast milk – Can be conferred artificially by injecting antibodies into a nonimmune person

56 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 43.4: The immune systems ability to distinguish self from nonself limits tissue transplantation The immune system – Can wage war against cells from other individuals Transplanted tissues – Are usually destroyed by the recipients immune system

57 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Blood Groups and Transfusions Certain antigens on red blood cells – Determine whether a person has type A, B, AB, or O blood

58 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Antibodies to nonself blood types – Already exist in the body Transfusion with incompatible blood – Leads to destruction of the transfused cells

59 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Recipient-donor combinations – Can be fatal or safe Table 43.1

60 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Another red blood cell antigen, the Rh factor – Creates difficulties when an Rh-negative mother carries successive Rh-positive fetuses

61 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Tissue and Organ Transplants MHC molecules – Are responsible for stimulating the rejection of tissue grafts and organ transplants

62 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The chances of successful transplantation are increased – If the donor and recipient MHC tissue types are well matched – If the recipient is given immunosuppressive drugs

63 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lymphocytes in bone marrow transplants – May cause a graft versus host reaction in recipients

64 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 43.5: Exaggerated, self-directed, or diminished immune responses can cause disease If the delicate balance of the immune system is disrupted – The effects on the individual can range from minor to often fatal consequences

65 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Allergies Allergies are exaggerated (hypersensitive) responses – To certain antigens called allergens

66 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings In localized allergies such as hay fever – IgE antibodies produced after first exposure to an allergen attach to receptors on mast cells

67 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The next time the allergen enters the body – It binds to mast cell–associated IgE molecules The mast cells then release histamine and other mediators – That cause vascular changes and typical symptoms

68 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The allergic response Figure 43.20 IgE antibodies produced in response to initial exposure to an allergen bind to receptors or mast cells. 1 On subsequent exposure to the same allergen, IgE molecules attached to a mast cell recog- nize and bind the allergen. 2 Degranulation of the cell, triggered by cross-linking of adjacent IgE molecules, releases histamine and other chemicals, leading to allergy symptoms. 3 1 2 3 Allergen IgE Histamine Granule Mast cell

69 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings An acute allergic response sometimes leads to anaphylactic shock – A whole-body, life-threatening reaction that can occur within seconds of exposure to an allergen

70 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Autoimmune Diseases In individuals with autoimmune diseases – The immune system loses tolerance for self and turns against certain molecules of the body

71 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Rheumatoid arthritis – Is an autoimmune disease that leads to damage and painful inflammation of the cartilage and bone of joints Figure 43.21

72 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Other examples of autoimmune diseases include – Systemic lupus erythematosus – Multiple sclerosis – Insulin-dependent diabetes

73 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Immunodeficiency Diseases An inborn or primary immunodeficiency – Results from hereditary or congenital defects that prevent proper functioning of innate, humoral, and/or cell-mediated defenses

74 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings An acquired or secondary immunodeficiency – Results from exposure to various chemical and biological agents

75 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Inborn (Primary) Immunodeficiencies In severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) – Both the humoral and cell-mediated branches of acquired immunity fail to function

76 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Acquired (Secondary) Immunodeficiencies Acquired immunodeficiencies – Range from temporary states to chronic diseases

77 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Stress and the Immune System Growing evidence shows – That physical and emotional stress can harm immunity

78 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) People with AIDS – Are highly susceptible to opportunistic infections and cancers that take advantage of an immune system in collapse

79 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Because AIDS arises from the loss of helper T cells – Both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses are impaired

80 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The loss of helper T cells – Results from infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 1µm Figure 43.22

81 Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The spread of HIV – Has become a worldwide problem The best approach for slowing the spread of HIV – Is educating people about the practices that transmit the virus


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