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Chapter 6 A Tour of the Cell.

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1 Chapter 6 A Tour of the Cell

2 Overview: The Importance of Cells
All organisms are made of cells The cell is the simplest collection of matter that can live Cell structure is correlated to cellular function All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells

3 Concept 6.1: To study cells, biologists use microscopes and the tools of biochemistry
Though usually too small to be seen by the unaided eye, cells can be complex

4 Microscopy Scientists use microscopes to visualize cells too small to see with the naked eye In a light microscope (LM), visible light passes through a specimen and then through glass lenses, which magnify the image The minimum resolution of an LM is about 200 nanometers (nm), the size of a small bacterium

5 LE 6-2 10 m Human height 1 m Length of some nerve and muscle cells
Unaided eye Chicken egg 1 cm Frog egg 1 mm Measurements 1 centimeter (cm) = 10–2 meter (m) = 0.4 inch 1 millimeter (mm) = 10–3 m 1 micrometer (µm) = 10–3 mm = 10–6 m 1 nanometer (nm) = 10–3 µm = 10–9 m 100 µm Most plant and animal cells Light microscope 10 µm Nucleus Most bacteria Mitochondrion 1 µm Smallest bacteria Electron microscope 100 nm Viruses Ribosomes 10 nm Proteins Lipids 1 nm Small molecules Atoms 0.1 nm

6 LMs can magnify effectively to about 1,000 times the size of the actual specimen
Various techniques enhance contrast and enable cell components to be stained or labeled Most subcellular structures, or organelles, are too small to be resolved by a LM

7 Brightfield (unstained specimen)
LE 6-3a Brightfield (unstained specimen) 50 µm Brightfield (stained specimen) Phase-contrast

8 Differential- interference- contrast (Nomarski) Fluorescence 50 µm
LE 6-3b Differential- interference- contrast (Nomarski) Fluorescence 50 µm Confocal 50 µm

9 Two basic types of electron microscopes (EMs) are used to study subcellular structures
Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) focus a beam of electrons onto the surface of a specimen, providing images that look 3D Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) focus a beam of electrons through a specimen TEMs are used mainly to study the internal ultrastructure of cells

10 LE 6-4 Scanning electron 1 µm microscopy (SEM) Cilia
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Longitudinal section of cilium Cross section of cilium 1 µm

11 Isolating Organelles by Cell Fractionation
Cell fractionation takes cells apart and separates the major organelles from one another Ultracentrifuges fractionate cells into their component parts Cell fractionation enables scientists to determine the functions of organelles

12 Differential centrifugation
LE 6-5a Homogenization Tissue cells Homogenate Differential centrifugation

13 LE 6-5b 1000 g (1000 times the force of gravity) 10 min
Supernatant poured into next tube 20,000 g 20 min 80,000 g 60 min Pellet rich in nuclei and cellular debris 150,000 g 3 hr Pellet rich in mitochondria (and chloro- plasts if cells are from a plant) Pellet rich in “microsomes” (pieces of plasma membranes and cells’ internal membranes) Pellet rich in ribosomes

14 Concept 6.2: Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions
The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is one of two types of cells: prokaryotic or eukaryotic Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells

15 Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Basic features of all cells: Plasma membrane Semifluid substance called the cytosol Chromosomes (carry genes) Ribosomes (make proteins)

16 Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus
In a prokaryotic cell, DNA is in an unbound region called the nucleoid Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles

17 A thin section through the bacterium Bacillus coagulans (TEM)
LE 6-6 Pili Nucleoid Ribosomes Plasma membrane Cell wall Bacterial chromosome Capsule 0.5 µm Flagella A typical rod-shaped bacterium A thin section through the bacterium Bacillus coagulans (TEM)

18 Eukaryotic cells have DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope
Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells The logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism sets limits on the size of cells

19 Surface area increases while Total volume remains constant
5 1 1 Total surface area (height x width x number of sides x number of boxes) 6 150 750 Total volume (height x width x length X number of boxes) 1 125 125 Surface-to-volume ratio (surface area  volume) 6 1.2 6

20 The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of the cell The general structure of a biological membrane is a double layer of phospholipids

21 LE 6-8 Outside of cell Carbohydrate side chain Hydrophilic region Inside of cell 0.1 µm Hydrophobic region Hydrophilic region Phospholipid Proteins TEM of a plasma membrane Structure of the plasma membrane

22 A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell
A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that partition the cell into organelles Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles

23 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER
LE 6-9a ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER Nuclear envelope Flagellum Rough ER Smooth ER Nucleolus NUCLEUS Chromatin Centrosome Plasma membrane CYTOSKELETON Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules Ribosomes: Microvilli Golgi apparatus Peroxisome Mitochondrion Lysosome In animal cells but not plant cells: Lysosomes Centrioles Flagella (in some plant sperm)

24 LE 6-9b Nuclear envelope Rough endoplasmic NUCLEUS reticulum Nucleolus
Chromatin Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Centrosome Ribosomes (small brown dots) Central vacuole Golgi apparatus Microfilaments Intermediate filaments CYTOSKELETON Microtubules Mitochondrion Peroxisome Plasma membrane Chloroplast Cell wall Plasmodesmata Wall of adjacent cell In plant cells but not animal cells: Chloroplasts Central vacuole and tonoplast Cell wall Plasmodesmata

25 The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell
Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make proteins

26 The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell
The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most conspicuous organelle The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm

27 LE 6-10 Nucleus Nucleus 1 µm Nucleolus Chromatin Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane Outer membrane Nuclear pore Pore complex Rough ER Surface of nuclear envelope Ribosome 1 µm 0.25 µm Close-up of nuclear envelope Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM)

28 Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell
Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations: In the cytosol (free ribosomes) On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

29 Ribosomes ER Cytosol Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Free ribosomes
Bound ribosomes Large subunit 0.5 µm Small subunit TEM showing ER and ribosomes Diagram of a ribosome

30 Components of the endomembrane system:
Concept 6.4: The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell Components of the endomembrane system: Nuclear envelope Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Vacuoles Plasma membrane These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles

31 The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope There are two distinct regions of ER: Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface

32 LE 6-12 Smooth ER Nuclear envelope Rough ER ER lumen Cisternae Ribosomes Transitional ER Transport vesicle 200 nm Smooth ER Rough ER

33 Functions of Smooth ER The smooth ER Synthesizes lipids
Metabolizes carbohydrates Stores calcium Detoxifies poison

34 Functions of Rough ER The rough ER Has bound ribosomes
Produces proteins and membranes, which are distributed by transport vesicles Is a membrane factory for the cell

35 The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center
The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae Functions of the Golgi apparatus: Modifies products of the ER Manufactures certain macromolecules Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

36 LE 6-13 Golgi apparatus cis face (“receiving” side of Golgi apparatus)
Vesicles move from ER to Golgi Vesicles coalesce to form new cis Golgi cisternae 0.1 µm Vesicles also transport certain proteins back to ER Cisternae Cisternal maturation: Golgi cisternae move in a cis- to-trans direction Vesicles form and leave Golgi, carrying specific proteins to other locations or to the plasma mem- brane for secretion Vesicles transport specific proteins backward to newer Golgi cisternae trans face (“shipping” side of Golgi apparatus) TEM of Golgi apparatus

37 Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle organelles and macromolecules, a process called autophagy Animation: Lysosome Formation

38 Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food
LE 6-14a Nucleus 1 µm Lysosome Lysosome contains active hydrolytic enzymes Food vacuole fuses with lysosome Hydrolytic enzymes digest food particles Digestive enzymes Plasma membrane Lysosome Digestion Food vacuole Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food

39 two damaged organelles 1 µm
LE 6-14b Lysosome containing two damaged organelles 1 µm Mitochondrion fragment Peroxisome fragment Lysosome fuses with vesicle containing damaged organelle Hydrolytic enzymes digest organelle components Lysosome Digestion Vesicle containing damaged mitochondrion Autophagy: lysosome breaking down damaged organelle

40 Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
Vesicles and vacuoles (larger versions of vacuoles) are membrane-bound sacs with varied functions A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles

41 Video: Paramecium Vacuole
Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater protists, pump excess water out of cells Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells, hold organic compounds and water Video: Paramecium Vacuole

42 LE 6-15 Central vacuole Cytosol Tonoplast Nucleus Central vacuole Cell wall Chloroplast 5 µm

43 The Endomembrane System: A Review
The endomembrane system is a complex and dynamic player in the cell’s compartmental organization Animation: Endomembrane System

44 LE Nucleus Rough ER Smooth ER Nuclear envelope cis Golgi Transport vesicle trans Golgi

45 LE Nucleus Rough ER Smooth ER Nuclear envelope cis Golgi Transport vesicle Plasma membrane trans Golgi

46 Concept 6.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another
Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration Chloroplasts, found only in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis Mitochondria and chloroplasts are not part of the endomembrane system Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles

47 Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded into cristae The inner membrane creates two compartments: intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP

48 Mitochondrion Intermembrane space Outer membrane Free ribosomes in the
LE 6-17 Mitochondrion Intermembrane space Outer membrane Free ribosomes in the mitochondrial matrix Inner membrane Cristae Matrix Mitochondrial DNA 100 nm

49 Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
The chloroplast is a member of a family of organelles called plastids Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other molecules that function in photosynthesis Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and in algae Chloroplast structure includes: Thylakoids, membranous sacs Stroma, the internal fluid

50 LE 6-18 Chloroplast Ribosomes Stroma Chloroplast DNA Inner and outer
membranes Granum 1 µm Thylakoid

51 Peroxisomes: Oxidation
Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single membrane Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water

52 LE 6-19 Chloroplast Peroxisome Mitochondrion 1 µm

53 Concept 6.6: The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm It organizes the cell’s structures and activities, anchoring many organelles It is composed of three types of molecular structures: Microtubules Microfilaments Intermediate filaments

54 LE 6-20 Microtubule Microfilaments 0.25 µm

55 Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support, Motility, and Regulation
The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and maintain its shape It interacts with motor proteins to produce motility Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along “monorails” provided by the cytoskeleton Recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton may help regulate biochemical activities

56 Vesicle ATP Receptor for motor protein Motor protein Microtubule
(ATP powered) Microtubule of cytoskeleton

57 LE 6-21b Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 µm

58 Components of the Cytoskeleton
Microtubules are the thickest of the three components of the cytoskeleton Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the thinnest components Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a middle range

59

60

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62 Microtubules Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in diameter and about 200 nm to 25 microns long Functions of microtubules: Shaping the cell Guiding movement of organelles Separating chromosomes during cell division

63 Centrosomes and Centrioles
In many cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome near the nucleus The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center” In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each with nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring

64 LE 6-22 Centrosome Microtubule Centrioles Longitudinal section
of one centriole Microtubules Cross section of the other centriole

65 Video: Paramecium Cilia
Cilia and Flagella Microtubules control the beating of cilia and flagella, locomotor appendages of some cells Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns Video: Chlamydomonas Video: Paramecium Cilia

66 LE 6-23a Direction of swimming Motion of flagella 5 µm

67 Direction of active stroke Direction of recovery stroke
LE 6-23b Direction of organism’s movement Direction of active stroke Direction of recovery stroke Motion of cilia 15 µm

68 Animation: Cilia and Flagella
Cilia and flagella share a common ultrastructure: A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum A motor protein called dynein, which drives the bending movements of a cilium or flagellum Animation: Cilia and Flagella

69 LE 6-24 Outer microtubule doublet Plasma membrane 0.1 µm Dynein arms Central microtubule Cross-linking proteins inside outer doublets Microtubules Plasma membrane Radial spoke Basal body 0.5 µm 0.1 µm Triplet Cross section of basal body

70 How dynein “walking” moves flagella and cilia:
Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release the outer microtubules Protein cross-links limit sliding Forces exerted by dynein arms cause doublets to curve, bending the cilium or flagellum

71 LE 6-25a Microtubule doublets ATP Dynein arm Dynein “walking”

72 Effect of cross-linking proteins
LE 6-25b Cross-linking proteins inside outer doublets ATP Anchorage in cell Effect of cross-linking proteins Wavelike motion

73 Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
Microfilaments are solid rods about 7 nm in diameter, built as a twisted double chain of actin subunits The structural role of microfilaments is to bear tension, resisting pulling forces within the cell They form a 3D network just inside the plasma membrane to help support the cell’s shape Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of microvilli of intestinal cells

74 Microfilaments (actin filaments)
LE 6-26 Microvillus Plasma membrane Microfilaments (actin filaments) Intermediate filaments 0.25 µm

75 Video: Cytoplasmic Streaming
Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the protein myosin in addition to actin In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are arranged parallel to one another Thicker filaments composed of myosin interdigitate with the thinner actin fibers Video: Cytoplasmic Streaming

76 Muscle cell Actin filament Myosin filament Myosin arm
LE 6-27a Muscle cell Actin filament Myosin filament Myosin arm Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction

77 Localized contraction brought about by actin and myosin also drives amoeboid movement
Pseudopodia (cellular extensions) extend and contract through the reversible assembly and contraction of actin subunits into microfilaments

78 Cortex (outer cytoplasm): gel with actin network
LE 6-27b Cortex (outer cytoplasm): gel with actin network Inner cytoplasm: sol with actin subunits Extending pseudopodium Amoeboid movement

79 Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of cytoplasm within cells
This streaming speeds distribution of materials within the cell In plant cells, actin-myosin interactions and sol-gel transformations drive cytoplasmic streaming

80 Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells
LE 6-27c Nonmoving cytoplasm (gel) Chloroplast Streaming cytoplasm (sol) Vacuole Parallel actin filaments Cell wall Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells

81 Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments range in diameter from 8–12 nanometers, larger than microfilaments but smaller than microtubules They support cell shape and fix organelles in place Intermediate filaments are more permanent cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes

82 These extracellular structures include: Cell walls of plants
Concept 6.7: Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external to the plasma membrane These extracellular structures include: Cell walls of plants The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells Intercellular junctions

83 Cell Walls of Plants The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells from animal cells The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and protein

84 Cell Walls of Plants Plant cell walls may have multiple layers:
Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible Middle lamella: thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent plant cells

85 LE 6-28 Central vacuole Plasma of cell membrane Secondary cell wall
Primary cell wall Central vacuole of cell Middle lamella 1 µm Central vacuole Cytosol Plasma membrane Plant cell walls Plasmodesmata

86 The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells
Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM) The ECM is made up of glycoproteins and other macromolecules Functions of the ECM: Support Adhesion Movement Regulation

87 Proteoglycan complex EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Collagen fiber Fibronectin
LE 6-29a Proteoglycan complex EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Collagen fiber Fibronectin Plasma membrane CYTOPLASM Integrin Micro- filaments

88 Proteoglycan complex Polysaccharide molecule Carbo- hydrates Core
LE 6-29b Proteoglycan complex Polysaccharide molecule Carbo- hydrates Core protein Proteoglycan molecule

89 Intercellular Junctions
Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical contact Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact

90 Plants: Plasmodesmata
Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell walls Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes (and sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell

91 LE 6-30 Cell walls Interior of cell Interior of cell 0.5 µm
Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes

92 Animals: Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap Junctions
At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into strong sheets Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells Animation: Tight Junctions Animation: Desmosomes Animation: Gap Junctions

93 LE 6-31 Tight junctions prevent Tight junction fluid from moving
across a layer of cells Tight junction 0.5 µm Tight junction Intermediate filaments Desmosome 1 µm Gap junctions Space between cells Plasma membranes of adjacent cells Gap junction Extracellular matrix 0.1 µm

94 The Cell: A Living Unit Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts
Cells rely on the integration of structures and organelles in order to function For example, a macrophage’s ability to destroy bacteria involves the whole cell, coordinating components such as the cytoskeleton, lysosomes, and plasma membrane


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