1. Dundalk IT MALT Programme
Seminar on Academic Writing
for Research Reports
Professor Tony Fell
University of Bradford, UK

2. Writing Skills IUA – Communication skills for Research Students
The nature of a Research Report / Thesis
Key issues in writing
Style
Etiquette
Report / Thesis Outlines.
Report / Thesis Planner
Structure
References
Submission

3. Writing Skills IUA Graduate Skills Statement 2012
Communication skills
Demonstrate effective writing and publishing skills
Effectively use and decide on appropriate forms and levels of communication
Communicate and explain research to diverse audiences, including both specialist and non-specialist
Teach and support the learning of undergraduate students when involved in teaching and demonstrating

4. Writing Skills The nature of a Research Report / Thesis?
A Research Report or Thesis gives a detailed account of a defined area of research with –
sufficient background information on what was known earlier, to orientate the general, interested reader
a clear statement of the ‘research question’ or problem and the related aims and objectives
a clear, logical exposition of the stages you have gone through in order to address the research question – creating new techniques, solutions and results on the way

5. Writing Skills The nature of a Research Report / Thesis?
A Research Report or Thesis will also –
present your own critical analysis of the originality and significance of the data presented, in relation to what was known or assumed beforehand
focus on your proposals for further developments in the field
(for a Thesis) be presented in a traditional format as a permanent record for access by all researchers, anywhere
(for a Thesis) be published in full or in part as an independent publication under your name after peer review

6. A good Literature Review should:
Writing Skills
A good Literature Review should:
Be selective
Not be simply a list or summary of publications
Have a balance of primary and secondary sources
Put published work into perspective, relevant to the Research Question
Evaluate and give a critical interpretation of published work, with appropriate reference to the Research Question

7. Ransom’s Rules for Scientific Writing*
Writing Skills
Ransom’s Rules for Scientific Writing*
If it can be interpreted in more than one way, it’s wrong
Know your audience; know your subject; know your purpose
If you can’t think of a reason to put a comma in, leave it out
Keep your writing clear, concise and correct
If it works, do it.
* Nora Ransom (Kansas State University) in M. Davis et al., Scientific Papers & Presentations, Academic Press, 2012

8. Writing Skills Approaches to Completion
The optimum situation is:
Write sections more or less continuously as your research programme moves forward
Integrate sections to compile the first draft of your Thesis
Track progress systematically
Use a Conference, Seminar or Poster paper as the basis for part of the Report / Thesis
This important milestone gives independent peer support & validates your Thesis

9. Writing Skills
Key issues

10. Writing Skills Key issues in writing a Report / Thesis:
Who is going to read it?
Should it be perfect?
How should you write it – writing styles?
Issues of style and syntax
Academic (“Oxford”) English versus the Personal style of writing
How should you plan and structure it?
How can you finish in time?
Key things to know about good referencing
Strategies for survival – the pitfalls to avoid?

11. Writing Skills Readership – Who are you writing for?
Researchers in your general area – but not necessarily specialists – intelligent, same general background, not knowing all the literature in your particular topic – ‘the intelligent, informed reader’
Someone who may use your thesis/dissertation as a reference work for their own research interests
The Examiners, who do have specialist knowledge in the area and will enjoy reviewing your work
The next generation of Research Students in your area

12. Writing Skills Who else are you writing for? Suggestion
Yourself – for your own satisfaction in expressing a deep interest in a topic, in a way that is informative and interesting
Suggestion
It can be helpful for an independent person to read sections of your Thesis (eg a friend) to comment on the style, informativeness etc – this can be really useful for the Introduction, Conclusions, and also the Abstract

13. Writing Skills Should your Report / Thesis be perfect?
If only ... but remember that readers, including the Examiners, r e a l l y don’t expect perfection either in style or content.
The typos, mislabelled graphs, missing references will leap off the page at you – just as soon as you’ve submitted your precious tome for examination

14. Writing Skills Should your Report / Thesis be perfect?
It’s really helpful to compile a list of typos, etc
This is then tabled for the Examiners at the Viva
It’s worth remembering that:
Most Masters and PhD Theses are approved in some form after the examination (70 to 80%)

15. How should you write a Report / Thesis?
Writing Skills Styles
How should you write a Report / Thesis?
With care … and with sufficient detail to describe the important stages of your research – usually more detail than is required (or permissible) for a published paper
Imagine someone tried to repeat exactly what you did – to find where precisely you located a key historical reference or fact; or in what language? – or to adopt special methodology / equipment you used or developed for critical experiments

16. Common sense about writing styles
Writing Skills Styles
Common sense about writing styles
Choose the appropriate style and use it consistently:
Write in a uniform, grammatical, fairly formal style – clarity is of the essence, so if the syntax (structure) is becoming complex, consider cutting back to shorter, simpler sentences

17. Common sense about writing styles
Writing Skills Styles
Common sense about writing styles
The personal style versus the impersonal style
This is often a question of personal taste or convention:
The personal style: I … , my … , we … , our … , etc.
or the impersonal ‘Oxford style’:
The Author noted that …
These observations were recorded in earlier research reports on …
Note: in some areas of Social Science, Management etc, when referring to a third person, the use of alternating gender is common: he … / she … & him… / her …

18. Common sense about writing styles
Writing Skills Styles
Common sense about writing styles
Use paragraphs to signpost a coherent group of related statements – they should not be too long. .
Keep sentences at a reasonable length – this helps avoid over-complicated statements and ensures your writing is clear and readable
Use the direct form rather than the impersonal form:
Based on these data, it would seem that …
Þ These data would indicate that …

19. More common sense about writing styles
Writing Skills Styles
More common sense about writing styles
Consistent use of tense
Decide on what tense to use for writing (present, past, etc) and be consistent – if in doubt, read it out or read it to a friend
If you use the past tense, you will need the ‘past in the past’ :
e.g. The device had malfunctioned before this work was started.

20. Even more common sense about writing styles
Writing Skills Styles
Even more common sense about writing styles
Things to avoid:
Undefined abbreviations – make a list defining all abbreviations and repeat the definition (at least once) in the text
Any form of slang
Jargon – if unavoidable, define it
Incomplete comparisons: e.g. These data were better.
‘Over the top’ superlatives: e.g. We consider these highly impressive results to have very significant global implications.

21. Writing Skills Etiquette
Punctuation issues:
The colon is often used for:
Introducing a list of items
Separating a general statement from a more specific one
The comma is often used:
For separating items in a list
For qualifying or defining a preceding word or phrase:
The SPSS method, which is now well established, is widely used for the analysis of data in the Social Sciences.
Where a natural break occurs in mid-sentence:
These data seem rather dubious, although they come from a highly reliable source.

22. Writing Skills Etiquette
More about punctuation:
The semi-colon is often used for
Separating items within a list
Separating two closely related statements
The hyphen is often used:
To separate parts of a sentence or to introduce a qualifying statement – as for example here
To link adjective and noun in a single phrase
e.g. long-term therapy
To link two adjectives: e.g. red-hot, dark-blue
To link adjective and participle: e.g. easy-going

23. Writing Skills Etiquette
Even more about punctuation:
The apostrophe is used:
To indicate possession
e.g. the system’s features (=1) and
the systems’ features (>1)
For elision or shortening:
e.g. It’s clear that (It is …) / That’s … /
NB Exceptionally:
“its” is possessive (without an apostrophe)
They noted its significance …
(They noted the significance of it …)

24. Writing Skills Etiquette
Note: one datum point is …
and several data points (or data) are …
Good referencing is an essential feature of a successful Report / Thesis
It’s the hallmark of true professionalism
Unfortunately plagiarism is currently one of the big issues in Postgraduate research
Increasing reliance by Examiners on “Turnitin” and similar monitors of plagiarism

25. Writing Skills Planning
Planning a Report / PhD Thesis
Develop an outline time-plan for your writing-up programme
Remember that all plans are there to be changed – flexibility is key
Complete one section at a time – in many areas it’s not essential to write sections sequentially
Ask for feedback on drafts from your Supervisor, a colleague or a friend
You might consider using a simplified Gantt Chart, for example – well known to be flexible

26. Writing Skills Gantt Chart approach to Planning a Report / Thesis

27. Report / Thesis Outlines
Writing Skills
Report / Thesis Outlines

28. Writing Skills Report / Thesis Outlines
A Report / Thesis Outline starts with the following sections, typically:
Title page
Abstract (written later in the process)
Acknowledgements
Lists of Contents – Tables – Figures –
List of Appendices
List of Abbreviations
List of presentations made/publications submitted
The Chapters or Sections that follow depend on the research area – cf. ‘Science’ versus ‘Humanities’

29. Writing Skills Report / Thesis Outlines [See printed copy]
Typical outline plan for Report / Thesis in Science, IT, Engineering – Part 1
Title, Abstract, List of Contents etc
Introduction
Literature Review
Clear statement of Research Question (Project)
Aims & Objectives
Theoretical background
Materials
Research Methods
Validation of Methods
[ Continued ]

30. Writing Skills Report / Thesis Outlines [See printed copy]
Typical outline plan for Report / Thesis in Science, IT, Engineering – Part 2
Ethical issues (if any)
Results & Discussion
Conclusions & Suggestions for further work
References (Harvard or numerical system)
Appendices

31. Writing Skills Report / Thesis Outlines [See printed copy]
Typical outline plan for Report / Thesis in Humanities Liberal Arts, Media etc – Part 1
Title, Abstract, List of Contents etc
Introduction
Clear statement of Research Question and related issues
Literature Review
Framework and rationale for Exhibition, Display, Performance (for Practice-based Doctorates)
[ Continued ]

32. Writing Skills Report / Thesis Outlines [See printed copy]
Typical outline plan for Report / Thesis in Humanities, Liberal Arts, Media etc – Part 2
Research Methods
Justification for selection of methods
Sources of information, informants, samples
Basis of selection for respondents (eg to Questionnaire)
Ethical issues (if any)
Results & Discussion
Conclusions & Suggestions for further work
Bibliography & References
Harvard or numerical system
Appendices

33. Report / Thesis Planner
Writing Skills
Report / Thesis Planner

34. Writing Skills Research Report Planner
The Report / Thesis Planner can be developed as follows:
To each Chapter Heading add 2 Sub-headings
The Headings and Sub-headings are inserted into the Report / Thesis Planner”
This simple Project Planning device can be formed using MS Word or Excel
It helps keep track of writing progress –
At the same time it informs Supervisors /colleagues about progress

35. Generic Research Report Planner – 1

36. Generic Research Report Planner – 2

37. Writing Skills Research Report Planner
The Report / Thesis Planner:
Is a very flexible system
Gives an immediate overview of the writing
Empowers the author
Helps monitor progress and identify missing sections – helps check progress
Shortens writing up time by ca 10 – 20%.
Monitors word count .
The Planner gives strong encouragement and confidence as writing progresses to completion
Helps timely completion

38. Structure & References
Writing Skills
Structure & References

39. Writing Skills Research Report Structure
Structure of typical Research Report or Thesis
The Outline Plan forms the basic structural template for your Report / Thesis
NB Sections / Subsections / Appendices
Max number of subsections for readability is 3
eg 1.0 – 1.1 – – 1.1.1(a)
Note: If you find that there are too many subsections, a powerful solution is to simply raise the first subsection to Chapter level.
The structure evolves progressively as the writing approaches completion

40. Writing Skills References
General issues
Computer-based records / traditional systems
Harvard system versus Numerical system
Section references vs Cumulative Reference List
Reference layout – style – page-to-page?
With or without titles?

41. Writing Skills References
General issues
Footnotes?
Back-up files daily – keep 2 updated copies
in d i f f e r e n t places!
Ratio of Introductory material to the rest – balance (ca. 1:3)
Impersonal vs personal style – check best practice in research area

42. Writing Skills References
Tracking the references
Ethical issues & IPR
Citing the competition!
Duplication – non-citation – total accuracy
Reference to own publications
Citing the Internet – give URL and date accessed
Citing Personal Communications:
A.B. Contact, Personal communication, February 2012 – or:
J.G. Friend ( , 13 February, 2012)
[using reference style adopted]

43. Writing Skills References
Tracking the References (cont’d)
Citing Unpublished Work:
M.Y. Self (Unpublished data September, 2012) or M.Y. Self (Unpublished observations, May, 2012)
Avoid: M.Y. Self (in preparation)
Citing submitted but so far not accepted work:
P.G. Slave and D.R. Supervisor, submitted for publication to X.Y.Z., 12 June, 2012
Citing accepted but so far not published work:
P.G. Slave and D.R. Supervisor, accepted for publication by X.Y.Z., 1 December, 2012

44. Writing Skills References
Avoiding the pitfalls
Proper acknowledgement of sources
Verbal – casual – printed but unpublished – published
Purple patches
IPR – 2-way street
Ethics of authorship
Mutual recognition – academic generosity
Consequences . . .

45. Writing Skills References
Avoiding the pitfalls (cont’d)
Proper acknowledgement of graphics
Figures – written permission from publishers for each figure/diagram essential
Must add to the figure legend:
“Reproduced from X.Y. Zymbal, Arch. Data
100, 1 –20 (2008) by kind permission of the Publishers”
A useful work-around is to change some details in the figure itself and add to the legend:
“Adapted from X.Y. Zymbal, Arch. Data 100, 1-20 (2008)”

46. Writing Skills Good Practice
Appendix out wherever appropriate (or use DVD or CD-ROM):
Sections of supplementary data
Parenthetical results
Reference materials
Protocols
Computer programmes
Any text / data that distracts from the flow of the main theme / development
Cite the Appendices in strict sequential order and list them with the Contents

47. Writing Skills Good Practice Writer’s block
Add a List of Abbreviations
really useful
always appreciated
Include a list of your own presentations & publications (if any), however modest
Writer’s block
Universal – including the famous
Change to doing another section – or some other activity

48. Writing Skills Submission
Find a friend to read your Abstract / Summary
Find another friend to read your Conclusions for clarity
Check final version of Report / Thesis with your Supervisor(s) or colleagues
NB Make plenty of time in your planning schedule to allow them to give their best shot

49. Writing Skills Submission
Check:
all pages run sequentially
all Figures and Tables are listed in the Contents
all Appendices are listed in order of citation
There’s no duplication of references
Any printed materials (eg short publications, reference materials) are put securely into the end pocket
Submit …

50. Developing an Abstract
Writing Skills
Developing an Abstract

51. Writing Skills Developing an Abstract
Types of Abstract / Summary
Function
Readership
Title / Key words
Structure & Organisation
Introduction – Aims – Methods – Results – Conclusions
Writing Style – tense – sentence length – construction
Word count
Iterative process for development / completion
Initial & concluding sentences / statements

52. Dundalk IT Seminar on Academic Writing for MALT Students
Discussion Groups:
Developing an Abstract /
Drafting the initial & concluding statements