1. Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy: The study of structure
Subdivisions:
Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional, surface, and systemic anatomy)
Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology)
Developmental (e.g., embryology)

2. Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Essential tools for the study of anatomy:
Mastery of anatomical terminology
Observation
Manipulation
Palpation
Auscultation

3. Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Physiology: The study of function at many levels
Subdivisions are based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)

4. Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Essential tools for the study of physiology:
Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic to cellular and molecular)
Basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement)
Basic chemical principles

5. Principle of Complementarity
Anatomy and physiology are inseparable.
Function always reflects structure
What a structure can do depends on its specific form

6. ___________ is the study of the body’s structure.
Histology
Anatomy
Embryology
Physiology
Answer: b. Anatomy

7. __________ is the study of the body’s function.
Histology
Anatomy
Embryology
Physiology
Answer: d. Physiology

8. hierarchical organization
When the anatomy of a body part is intimately tied to its specific function, scientists call this the principle of ___________.
hierarchical organization
complementary nature of structure and function
homeostasis
negative feedback
Answer: b. complementary nature of structure and function

9. Levels of Structural Organization
Chemical: atoms and molecules
Cellular: cells and their organelles
Tissue: groups of similar cells
Organ: contains two or more types of tissues
Organ system: organs that work closely together
Organismal: all organ systems

10. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 1
Organelle
Atoms
Molecule
Smooth muscle cell 2
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 1
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
Cardiovascular system 3
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.
Heart
Blood vessels
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue 4
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues.
Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems. 6 5
Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.
Figure 1.1

11. Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.1
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Figure 1.1, step 1

12. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 1
Organelle
Atoms
Molecule
Smooth muscle cell 2
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 1
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Figure 1.1, step 2

13. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
Organelle
Atoms
Molecule
Smooth muscle cell 2
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. 1
Smooth muscle tissue 3
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.
Figure 1.1, step 3

14. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
Organelle
Atoms
Molecule
Smooth muscle cell 2
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. 1
Smooth muscle tissue
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. 3
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue 4
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues.
Figure 1.1, step 4

15. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 2
Organelle
Atoms
Molecule
Smooth muscle cell
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 2
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. 1
Smooth muscle tissue
Cardiovascular system 3
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.
Heart
Blood vessels
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue 4
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues.
Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. 5
Figure 1.1, step 5

16. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 1
Organelle
Atoms
Molecule
Smooth muscle cell 2
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 1
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
Cardiovascular system 3
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.
Heart
Blood vessels
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue 4
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues.
Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems. 6 5
Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.
Figure 1.1, step 6

17. Which of the following is a logical organization?
Atoms, cells, molecules, tissues
Molecules, atoms, cells, tissues
Atoms, tissues, molecules, cells
Atoms, molecules, cells, tissues
Answer: d. Atoms, molecules, cells, tissues

18. Overview of Organ Systems
Note major organs and functions of the 11 organ systems

19. (a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering, and
Hair
Skin
Nails
(a) Integumentary System
Forms the external body covering, and
protects deeper tissues from injury.
Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses
cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.)
receptors and sweat and oil glands.
Figure 1.3a

20. Protects and supports body organs,
Bones
Joint
(b) Skeletal System
Protects and supports body organs,
and provides a framework the muscles
use to cause movement. Blood cells
are formed within bones. Bones store
minerals.
Figure 1.3b

21. Allows manipulation of the environment,
Skeletal
muscles
(c) Muscular System
Allows manipulation of the environment,
locomotion, and facial expression. Main-
tains posture, and produces heat.
Figure 1.3c

22. As the fast-acting control system of
Brain
Nerves
Spinal
cord
(d) Nervous System
As the fast-acting control system of
the body, it responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.
Figure 1.3d

23. Glands secrete hormones that regulate
Pineal gland
Pituitary
gland
Thyroid
gland
Thymus
Adrenal
gland
Pancreas
Testis
Ovary
(e) Endocrine System
Glands secrete hormones that regulate
processes such as growth, reproduction,
and nutrient use (metabolism) by body
cells.
Figure 1.3e

24. (f) Cardiovascular System
Heart
Blood
vessels
(f) Cardiovascular System
Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.
The heart pumps blood.
Figure 1.3f

25. (g) Lymphatic System/Immunity Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels
Red bone
marrow
Thymus
Lymphatic
vessels
Thoracic
duct
Spleen
Lymph
nodes
(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity
Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels
and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris
in the lymphatic stream. Houses white
blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in
immunity. The immune response mounts
the attack against foreign substances
within the body.
Figure 1.3g

26. (h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Bronchus
Larynx
Trachea
Lung
(h) Respiratory System
Keeps blood constantly supplied with
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
The gaseous exchanges occur through
the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
Figure 1.3h

27. Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for
Oral cavity
Esophagus
Liver
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus
(i) Digestive System
Breaks down food into absorbable
units that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells. Indigestible
foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
Figure 1.3i

28. Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
(j) Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the
body. Regulates water, electrolyte and
acid-base balance of the blood.
Figure 1.3j

29. (k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System
Mammary
glands (in
breasts)
Prostate
gland
Ovary
Penis
Testis
Ductus
deferens
Scrotum
Uterine
tube
Uterus
Vagina
(k) Male Reproductive System
(l) Female Reproductive System
Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex
hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female
reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining
female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus.
Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
Figure 1.3k-l

30. The __________ level of organization is the main theme presented in this book.
cellular
tissue
organ
organ system
Answer: d. organ system

31. Organ Systems Interrelationships
All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs
Organ systems work cooperatively to perform necessary life functions

32. Figure 1.2 Digestive system Takes in nutrients, breaks them
down, and eliminates unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Respiratory system
Takes in oxygen and
eliminates carbon dioxide
Food O2
CO2
Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon
dioxide to disposal organs
Blood
CO2 O2
Urinary
system
Eliminates
nitrogenous
wastes and
excess ions
Heart
Nutrients
Interstitial fluid
Nutrients and wastes pass
between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid
Integumentary system
Protects the body as a whole
from the external environment
Feces
Urine
Figure 1.2

33. Necessary Life Functions
Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments
Plasma membranes
Skin
Movement (contractility)
Of body parts (skeletal muscle)
Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)

34. Necessary Life Functions
Responsiveness: The ability to sense and respond to stimuli
Withdrawal reflex
Control of breathing rate
Digestion
Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs
Absorption of simple molecules into blood

35. Necessary Life Functions
Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in body cells
Catabolism and anabolism
Excretion: The removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion
Urea, carbon dioxide, feces

36. Necessary Life Functions
Reproduction
Cellular division for growth or repair
Production of offspring
Growth: Increase in size of a body part or of organism

37. Survival Needs Nutrients Oxygen Chemicals for energy and cell building
Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins
Oxygen
Essential for energy release (ATP production)

38. Normal body temperature
Survival Needs
Water
Most abundant chemical in the body
Site of chemical reactions
Normal body temperature
Affects rate of chemical reactions
Appropriate atmospheric pressure
For adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs

39. Maintaining boundaries Metabolism Reproduction (organismal) Excretion
Of the eight necessary life functions, which of the following is not required for an individual’s survival?
Maintaining boundaries
Metabolism
Reproduction (organismal)
Excretion
Answer: c. Reproduction (organismal)

40. One survival need of humans is appropriate atmospheric pressure
One survival need of humans is appropriate atmospheric pressure. At high altitudes where atmospheric pressure is lower, you might expect that oxygen acquisition would ____________.
decrease
increase twofold
increase threefold
remain unchanged
Answer: a. decrease

41. Homeostasis
Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes
A dynamic state of equilibrium

42. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors (variables)
Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones

43. Components of a Control Mechanism
Receptor (sensor)
Monitors the environment
Responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)
Control center
Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
Receives input from receptor
Determines appropriate response

44. Components of a Control Mechanism
Effector
Receives output from control center
Provides the means to respond
Response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)

45. Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector. 4 3
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center.
Control Center
Afferent pathway
Efferent pathway 2
Receptor
Effector 5
Receptor detects change.
Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level. 1
IMBALANCE
Stimulus produces change in variable.
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
Figure 1.4

46. Stimulus produces change in variable. BALANCE1
IMBALANCE
Stimulus produces change in variable.
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
Figure 1.4, step 1

47. Receptor detects change.2
Receptor
Receptor detects change. 1
IMBALANCE
Stimulus produces change in variable.
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
Figure 1.4, step 2

48. Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. 3
Control Center
Afferent pathway 2
Receptor
Receptor detects change. 1
IMBALANCE
Stimulus produces change in variable.
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
Figure 1.4, step 3

49. Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector. 4 3
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center.
Control Center
Afferent pathway
Efferent pathway 2
Receptor
Effector
Receptor detects change. 1
IMBALANCE
Stimulus produces change in variable.
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
Figure 1.4, step 4

50. Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector. 4 3
Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center.
Control Center
Afferent pathway
Efferent pathway 2
Receptor
Effector 5
Receptor detects change.
Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level. 1
IMBALANCE
Stimulus produces change in variable.
BALANCE
IMBALANCE
Figure 1.4, step 5

51. The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus
Negative Feedback
The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus
Examples:
Regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism)
Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)

52. Temperature-sensitive Temperature-sensitive
Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
Information sent
along the afferent
pathway to control
center
Information sent
along the efferent
pathway to
effectors
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Receptors
Temperature-sensitive
cells in skin and brain
Effectors
Sweat glands
Sweat glands activated
Response
Evaporation of sweat
Body temperature falls;
stimulus ends
Stimulus
Body temperature
rises
BALANCE
Stimulus
Body temperature falls
Response
Body temperature rises;
stimulus ends
Receptors
Temperature-sensitive
cells in skin and brain
Effectors
Skeletal muscles
Efferent
pathway
Afferent
pathway
Shivering
begins
Information sent
along the efferent
pathway to effectors
Information sent
along the afferent
pathway to control
center
Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
Figure 1.5

53. Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Volume by ADH
Receptors sense decreased blood volume
Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood

54. Which of the following is an example of a negative feedback mechanism?
During labor, as uterine contractions begin, levels of the hormone, oxytocin, continuously rise to further stimulate more contractions.
The thyroid gland releases thyroid hormone under the influence of the hormone TSH. TSH release decreases when thyroid hormone levels reach their set point.
An individual who is incapable of synthesizing thyroid hormone will often develop an enlarged thyroid gland due to continuous TSH stimulation.
Answer: b. The thyroid gland releases thyroid hormone under the influence of the hormone TSH. TSH release decreases when thyroid hormone levels reach their set point.

55. The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
Positive Feedback
The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
Usually controls infrequent events e.g.:
Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
Platelet plug formation and blood clotting

56. 1 3 2 4 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated. 3
Released chemicals attract more platelets.
Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals. 2
Positive feedback loop
Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed. 4
Platelet plug forms.
Figure 1.6

57. 1 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
Figure 1.6, step 1

58. 1 2 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated. 2
Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals.
Figure 1.6, step 2

59. 1 3 2 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated. 3
Released chemicals attract more platelets.
Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals. 2
Positive feedback loop
Figure 1.6, step 3

60. 1 3 2 4 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated. 3
Released chemicals attract more platelets.
Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals. 2
Positive feedback loop
Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed. 4
Platelet plug forms.
Figure 1.6, step 4

61. Homeostatic Imbalance
Disturbance of homeostasis
Increases risk of disease
Contributes to changes associated with aging
May allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over (e.g., heart failure)

62. Standard anatomical body position:
Anatomical Position
Standard anatomical body position:
Body erect
Feet slightly apart
Palms facing forward

63. Cephalic Upper limb Frontal Acromial Orbital Brachial (arm) Nasal
Antecubital
Oral
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Mental
Cervical
Carpal (wrist)
Manus (hand)
Thoracic
Palmar
Axillary
Pollex
Mammary
Digital
Sternal
Abdominal
Lower limb
Umbilical
Coxal (hip)
Pelvic
Femoral (thigh)
Inguinal
(groin)
Patellar
Crural (leg)
Pubic
(genital)
Fibular or peroneal
Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Thorax
Metatarsal
Abdomen
Digital
Back (Dorsum)
Hallux
(a) Anterior/Ventral
Figure 1.7a

64. Table 1.1

65. Table 1.1

66. Table 1.1

67. Table 1.1

68. Table 1.1

69. Two major divisions of body:
Regional Terms
Two major divisions of body:
Axial
Head, neck, and trunk
Appendicular
Limbs
Regional terms designate specific areas

70. Cephalic Upper limb Frontal Acromial Orbital Brachial (arm) Nasal
Antecubital
Oral
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Mental
Cervical
Carpal (wrist)
Manus (hand)
Thoracic
Palmar
Axillary
Pollex
Mammary
Digital
Sternal
Abdominal
Lower limb
Umbilical
Coxal (hip)
Pelvic
Femoral (thigh)
Inguinal
(groin)
Patellar
Crural (leg)
Pubic
(genital)
Fibular or peroneal
Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Thorax
Metatarsal
Abdomen
Digital
Back (Dorsum)
Hallux
(a) Anterior/Ventral
Figure 1.7a

71. Upper limb Cephalic Acromial Otic Brachial (arm) Occipital (back
of head)
Olecranal
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Cervical
Back (dorsal)
Manus (hand)
Scapular
Metacarpal
Vertebral
Digital
Lumbar
Lower limb
Sacral
Femoral (thigh)
Gluteal
Popliteal
Perineal (between
anus and external
genitalia)
Sural (calf)
Fibular or peroneal
Pedal (foot)
Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Calcaneal
Plantar
(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Figure 1.7b

72. Body Planes
Plane: Flat surface along which body or structure is cut for anatomical study

73. Midsagittal (median) plane
Body Planes
Sagittal plane
Divides body vertically into right and left parts
Produces a sagittal section
Midsagittal (median) plane
Lies on midline
Parasagittal plane
Not on midline

74. Frontal (coronal) plane
Body Planes
Frontal (coronal) plane
Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts
Transverse (horizontal) plane
Divides body horizontally into superior and inferior parts
Produces a cross section
Oblique section
Cuts made diagonally

75. Median (midsagittal) plane
Frontal plane
Median (midsagittal) plane
Transverse plane
(a) Frontal section
(through torso)
(b) Transverse section
(through torso,
inferior view)
(c) Median section
(midsagittal)
Pancreas
Aorta
Spleen
Left and
right lungs
Liver
Heart
Spleen
Liver
Spinal cord
Rectum
Intestines
Body wall
Stomach
Arm
Vertebral
column
Subcutaneous fat layer
Figure 1.8

76. Anatomical Variability
Over 90% of all anatomical structures match textbook descriptions, but:
Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of place
Small muscles may be missing

77. Body Cavities Dorsal cavity Two subdivisions: Protects nervous system
Cranial cavity
Encases brain
Vertebral cavity
Encases spinal cord

78. Body Cavities Ventral cavity Houses internal organs (viscera)
Two subdivisions (separated by diaphragm):
Thoracic cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity

79. Cranial
cavity
Cranial
cavity
(contains
brain)
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
Vertebral
cavity
Superior
mediastinum
Dorsal
body
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
(contains
heart and
lungs)
Pleural
cavity
Pericardial
cavity within
the mediastinum
Vertebral
cavity
(contains
spinal
cord)
Ventral body
cavity
(thoracic and
abdominopelvic
cavities)
Diaphragm
Abdominal cavity
(contains digestive
viscera)
Abdomino-
pelvic
cavity
Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum)
(a) Lateral view
(b) Anterior view
Figure 1.9a-b

80. Thoracic cavity subdivisions:
Ventral Body Cavities
Thoracic cavity subdivisions:
Two pleural cavities
Each houses a lung
Mediastinum
Contains pericardial cavity
Surrounds thoracic organs
Pericardial cavity
Encloses heart

81. Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions:
Ventral Body Cavities
Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions:
Abdominal cavity
Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver
Pelvic cavity
Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

82. Cranial
cavity
Cranial
cavity
(contains
brain)
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
Vertebral
cavity
Superior
mediastinum
Dorsal
body
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
(contains
heart and
lungs)
Pleural
cavity
Pericardial
cavity within
the mediastinum
Vertebral
cavity
(contains
spinal
cord)
Ventral body
cavity
(thoracic and
abdominopelvic
cavities)
Diaphragm
Abdominal cavity
(contains digestive
viscera)
Abdomino-
pelvic
cavity
Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum)
(a) Lateral view
(b) Anterior view
Figure 1.9a-b

83. Serous Membrane (Serosa)
Thin, double-layered membrane separated by serous fluid
Parietal serosa lines internal body walls
Visceral serosa covers the internal organs

84. (comparable to parietal serosa)
Outer balloon wall
(comparable to parietal serosa)
Air (comparable to serous cavity)
Inner balloon wall
(comparable to visceral serosa)
Heart
Parietal
pericardium
Pericardial
space with
serous fluid
Visceral
pericardium
(b) The serosae associated with the heart.
Figure 1.10a-b

85. Abdominopelvic Regions
Nine divisions used primarily by anatomists

86. Right upper Left upper quadrant quadrant (RUQ) (LUQ) Right lower
(RLQ)
Left lower
quadrant
(LLQ)
Figure 1.11

87. Abdominopelvic Quadrants
Divisions used primarily by medical personnel

88. Figure 1.12 Liver Diaphragm Right hypochondriac region Left
Epigastric
region
Gallbladder
Stomach
Right
lumbar
region
Left
lumbar
region
Ascending colon of
large intestine
Transverse colon
of large intestine
Umbilical
region
Small intestine
Descending colon
of large intestine
Cecum
Right iliac
(inguinal)
region
Hypogastric
(pubic)
region
Left iliac
(inguinal)
region
Initial part of
sigmoid colon
Appendix
Urinary bladder
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs
Figure 1.12

89. Other Body Cavities
Oral and digestive cavities
Nasal cavity
Orbital cavities
Middle ear cavities
Synovial cavities

90. If someone has broken a leg, he or she has damaged the ________ division of the body.
dorsal
appendicular
superficial
axial
Answer: b. appendicular

91. The __________ division of the body is necessary for supporting life.
axial
superficial
appendicular
appendage
Answer: a. axial

92. The term ___________ refers to internal organs, while the term _________ refers to body cavity walls.
serosa; pleural
visceral; ventral
serosa; parietal
visceral; parietal
Answer: d. visceral; parietal