1. Qualitative Research RME 811 Jumoke I. Oladele (PhD) Department of Social Sciences Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin

2. Outline Meaning of qualitative research and its differences from quantitative research. Approaches used in qualitative research and their strength and weakness. Methods of data collection in qualitative research Qualitative data analysis methods Report writing in qualitative studies.

3. Outline 1 Qualitative Research- Meaning ‘Qualitative Research…involves finding out what people think, and how they feel - or at any rate, what they say they think and how they say they feel. This kind of information is subjective. It involves feelings and impressions, rather than numbers’ Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non- numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

4. Qualitative Research- Contrast By contrast, quantitative research focuses on the way the world is understood in researchers’ minds, usually using abstract concepts and terminology, and the data usually consist of scores on measuring instruments of some kind (in psychology and education these are often tests or questionnaires).

5. Qualitative Research- Contrast A second major difference is that qualitative research is concerned with the patterns and forms of variables, whereas quantitative research examines differences in amount or level of the variables being studied and cause and effect relationships among these variables. Although qualitative research was out of fashion for a long time, modern interest in it represents the re-emergence of an approach that has as long a history in social science as quantitative methods. Despite the existence of “paradigm wars,” the two approaches are not rivals, but are complementary.

6. Qualitative Research Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. Qualitative Researchers study “things” (people and their thoughts) in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.

7. Qualitative Research The core property of qualitative research is that it examines the way people make sense out of their own concrete, real-life experiences in their own minds and in their own words and subsequently analyses these understandings using the concepts of a behavioural science such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, politics, education, health sciences or, nowadays, business and management, decision making, or innovation, where qualitative research is being carried out.

8. Qualitative Research Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and sometimes counterdisciplinary field. It crosses the humanities and the social and physical sciences. Qualitative research is many things at the same time. It is multiparadigmatic in focus. Its practitioners are sensitive to the value of the multimethod approach. They are committed to the naturalistic perspective, and to the interpretative understanding of human experience. At the same time, the field is inherently political and shaped by multiple ethical and political positions.

9. Qualitative vs. Quantitative

10. Outline 2 Methodological Approaches used in qualitative research Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials - case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals lives. Deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand. The data that result are referred to as “narratives” (e.g., remarks in an interview, statements in a written text, but also videos, even works of art).

11. Approaches- cont. Common approaches include: Grounded theory Ethnography Action research phenomenological research Narrative research. Case Study These approaches share some similarities but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

12. Approaches used in qualitative research Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect, observer bias, recall bias, and social desirability bias. While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.research biasesthe Hawthorne effectobserver biasrecall biassocial desirability bias ApproachWhat does it involve? Grounded theoryResearchers collect rich data on a topic of interest and develop theories inductively.inductively EthnographyResearchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to understand their cultures. Action researchResearchers and participants collaboratively link theory to practice to drive social change. Phenomenological research Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and interpreting participants’ lived experiences. Narrative researchResearchers examine how stories are told to understand how participants perceive and make sense of their experiences. Case study researchResearchers engage in the exploration of a phenomenon within some particular context through various data sources, and it undertakes the exploration through variety of lenses in order to reveal multiple facets of the phenomenon

13. The wholistic View DimensionNarrativePhenomenolo gy Grounded TheoryEthnographyCase Study Action Focus Exploring the life of an individual Understanding the essence of experiences about a phenomenon Developing a theory grounded from data in the field Describing and interpreting a cultural or social group Developing an in-depth analysis of a single case or multiple cases Collaborating to ink theory to practice to drive social change. Data Collection Primary interviews and documents Long interviews with up to 10 people Interviews with 20-30 individuals to “saturate” categories and detail a theory Primarily observations and interviews with additional artifacts during extended time in the field (e.g. 6 months to a year) Multiple sources including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, Physical artifacts Individual interviews or Focus group with up to 5 people Form of data Detailed picture of an individual’s life Description of the “essence” of the experience Theory or theoretical model Description of the cultural behavior of a group or an individual In-depth study of a “case” or “cases” multiple sources of evidence

14. Outline 3 Methods of data collection in qualitative research Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials - case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals lives. Deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand. The data that result are referred to as “narratives” (e.g., remarks in an interview, statements in a written text, but also videos, even works of art).

15. Methods of data collection in qualitative research Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods. These are some of the most common qualitative methods: Observations (participant/non particpant): recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes. Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations. Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people. Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions. Projective Techniques Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc. Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens. For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

16. Qualitative Methods Focus group discussions (FGDs) Interviews Key Informant Interview (KII) In-depth Interview (IDI) Direct observations 16

17. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a qualitative research method and data collection technique in which a selected group of people discusses a given topic or issue in-depth, facilitated by a professional, external moderator. Participants should be as homogenous as possible Arrangements for recruitment of participants and organization of discussant groups usually made one week in advance Important to recruit participants using a random method (preferred even though not always feasible)

18. Role of the FGD Moderator Introduces the discussion topics Adopts an enthusiastic lively approach to put participants at ease Builds rapport with participants and gains their confidence and trust in order to probe their responses and comments more deeply Leads the group (should not be led by it) Observes participants and notes extent of participation (encourages all to participate) Listens carefully and moves the discussion logically from point to point 18

19. Role of the FGD Moderator Reacts appropriately and neutrally to comments (gestures and other non-verbal forms of communication should not suggest agreement or disagreement with participants comments) Flexible and open to suggestions, changes, interruptions and lack of participation Controls the rhythm of the meeting Spends less time on issues that have been discussed by other groups and more time on new information that is being provided Keeps to the time allocated as much as possible Uses simple language and local phrases as much as possible. Where necessary also uses local language Observes participants non-verbal communication and respond accordingly Is aware of his/her tone of voice 19

20. Role of the Note taker/Recorder Takes notes during the discussions Notes should include the following: –Date of meeting, time it began and ended –The name of the community/type of target group –Place where the meeting is held and how location may affect participants –Number of participants and descriptive data on them –The note taker is responsible for operating the tape recorder (with consent of the participants) –A general description of group dynamics, level of participation –Interruptions/distractions that occur during the discussion –Records the opinions of the participants using phrases like “the majority of the group is of the opinion that….. 20

21. Role of the Note taker/Recorder –Records one or two quotes to support or disagree with opinion. Quotation marks should be used to indicate participant’s actual words and the gender, age, and type of the participant should be clearly labelled –The notetaker should make efforts to note participants own words in the local language (the general vocabulary of the participants) If the facilitator misses comments made by someone, the recorder can raise it tactfully (preferably pass a small note to facilitator to note for action) If the facilitator omits a question from the guide, the recorder can point this out (via a note to the facilitator) The recorder should note whether the facilitator has lost control of the meeting 21 Focus Group Management Techniques Clarification, Substitution, Reorientation, The dominant participant, The reluctant participant

22. Interview An INTERVIEW is a data-collection (generation) technique that involves oral questioning of participant. 22 Practical Communication Skills Good communication should lead to a shared understanding Be aware of non-verbal communication Giving constructive feedback –Comment on positive things first –Be constructive –Be specific –Do no give direct or blaming criticism

23. Probing PROBING is a good questioning skill Examples Does the farmer have access to the technology? (Closed question) Probes –Was is it equally distributed? –Is it efficient? Have you given the child medicine? Probes –What kinds of post-harvest technologies have you been given? –Was is given to individual or cooperatives? Did you pay for it? 23

24. Type of Question Type Opening questionsTo identify the characteristics that the participants have in common. Participants should be given an opportunity to introduce themselves Introductory questions To introduce the general topic of the discussion, and to stimulate the conversation and improve interaction in the group. Transition questionsTo move the participants into the focus of the discussion. Key questionsConcern about the focus of the interview Ending questionsGive the participants an opportunity to make final statement. Final questionsAsk the participants to add things they think have not been considered during the discussion.

25. In-depth interviews (IDI) is an extended and formalized conversations This type of data collection is different from self-administered questionnaires or surveys that employ a standard set of questions administered through a structured interview Like FGDs, in-depth interviews are used to determine individuals’ ( perceptions, opinions, facts and forecasts through detailed open-ended responses to questions) Interviewers must interview respondents at their convenience and availability Flexible and open to suggestions, changes, and interruptions Controls the rhythm of the interview Focuses on new information that is being provided In-depth Interviews (IDI)

26. Observation An OBSERVATION is used to make an informal assessment of a participant’s behaviour, attitudes, skills concepts or process.. 26 Types of Observation 1.Participant Observation 2.Non participant Observation 3.Direct Observation 4.Indirect Observation 5.Systematic Observation 6.Retrospective Observation 7.Prospective Observation Details of each method and their strength and weakness is in the support material provided.

27. Strength of different methods Appropriate forStrength of Method InterviewsEliciting individual experiences, opinions, feelings Addressing sensitive topics Elicits in-depth responses, with differences and contradictions Gets at interpretive perspective, i.e., connections and relationships a person sees between particular events, phenomena, and beliefs Focus Groups Identifying group norms Eliciting opinions about group norms Discovering variety within a population Elicits information on a range of norms and opinions in a short time Group dynamic stimulates conversation, reactions ObservationsMaking an informal assessment of research participants gains a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individual Participant behave naturally It provides more details and precise evidence. It stimulates change and verify the change occurs. Relatively inexpensive (exposure and out come already occured)

28. Strength of different methods Appropriate forStrength of Method Documentary or artifact analysis When personal and official documents are available to researcher When researcher is interested in categorising, investigating, interpreing and identifing the limitations of physical sources When there is need to create a larger narrative through the study of multiple documents surrounding an event or individual Data readily available: Data is readily available in various sources. Inexpensive and economical: The data for research is already collected and published in either print or other forms Saves time: Conducting market research is time- consuming. richness as a source of additional data and their ability to stimulate additional interview questions Journal notes or reflections? ASSIGNMENT

29. Now that you have conducted a qualitative study involving… –Interviews –Focus Groups –Observations –Documentary or artifact analysis –Journal notes or reflections? Getting Started

30. Just as there are numerous statistical tests to run for quantitative data, there are just as many options for qualitative data analysis… What to do with the data

31. Think of managing your qualitative analysis process like cleaning your closets – the same basic steps apply! LIKE CLEANING A CLOSET ???

32. Take everything out of the closet Sort everything out – save or toss? Look at what you have left and organize into sub-groupings (chunking) Organize sub-groups into clusters of similar things that belong together (clusters, codes) As you put things back, how would you group them to maximize functionality? How do the groups make it work together? (interpretation, presentation) It’s the same process…

33. All qualitative data analysis involves the same four essential steps: 1.Raw data management- ‘data cleaning’ 2.Data reduction – ‘chunking’, ‘coding’ 3.Data interpretation – ‘coding’, ‘clustering’ 4.Data representation – ‘telling the story’, ‘making sense of the data for others’ FOUR BASIC STEPS

34. DATA ANALYSIS SPIRAL #1

35. What is raw data management? –The process of preparing and organizing raw data into meaningful units of analysis: Text or audio data transformed into transcripts Image data transformed into videos, photos, charts As you review your data, you find that some of it is not usable or relevant to your study… Step 1: Raw Data Management

36. Raw Data Sample I always wanted to get my doctorate but I never felt I had the time; then I reached a point in my career where I saw that without the credentials, I would never advance to the types of positions I aspired to..but I doubted I could do the work. I wasn’t sure I could go back to school after so much time. And did I have the time, with working and a family? These were the things I struggled with as I looked for the right program. Um,..finally starting the program with others like me, it felt surreal. Once you switch gears from being an established administrator at a college to being a doc student, you realize you lose control over your life. You are not in charge in that classroom, like you are in your office. But also, once you say you are a doc student, people look at you differently. And people at work began to take me more seriously, ask for my opinion as if I now possessed special knowledge because I was going for the doctorate. It was the same information I had shared previously but somehow it had a special quality? Its like magic! I can’t think of a particular example right now… Transcript of Interview Data Are some portions of this transcript unusable or irrelevant? (purple) Raw Data Overview

37. Get a sense of the data holistically, read several times (immersion) Classify and categorize repeatedly, allowing for deeper immersion Write notes in the margins (memoing) Preliminary classification schemes emerge, categorize raw data into groupings (chunking) Step II: Data Reduction I

38. Chunks-Clusters Sample I always wanted to get my doctorate but I never felt I had the time; then I reached a point in my career where I saw that without the credentials, I would never advance to the types of positions I aspired to..but I doubted I could do the work. I wasn’t sure I could go back to school after so much time. And did I have the time, with working and a family? These were the things I struggled with as I looked for the right program. -finally starting the program with others like me, it felt surreal. Once you switch gears from being an established administrator at a college to being a doc student, you realize you lose control over your life. You are not in charge in that classroom, like you are in your office. But also, once you say you are a doc student, people look at you differently. And people at work began to take me more seriously, ask for my opinion as if I now possessed special knowledge because I was going for the doctorate. It was the same information I had shared previously but somehow it had a special quality? Its like magic! Which sections of data are broadly similar? (red for credentials, blue for personal struggles, green for shift in identity) Which ‘chunks’ can be clustered together to relate to a broad coding scheme? Transcript of Interview Data Chunking? Clusters?

39. Step II: Data Reduction II –The process of reducing data from chunks into clusters and codes to make meaning of that data: Chunks of data that are similar begin to lead to initial clusters and coding –Clusters – assigning chunks of similarly labeled data into clusters and assigning preliminary codes –Codes – refining, developing code books, labeling codes, creating codes through 2-3 cycles

40. Initial coding may include as many as 30 categories Reduce codes once, probably twice Reduce again to and refine to codes that are mutually exclusive and include all raw data that was identified as usable Coding Process

41. A Priori –Codes derived from literature, theoretical frames In Vivo (inductive or grounded) –Codes derived from the data by using code names drawn from participant quotes or interpretation of the data “Its like magic” is a phrase that could form the basis for a code category A Priori or In Vivo Codes

42. Descriptive to Interpretative to Pattern Coding –Moves from summary to meaning to explanation OR First cycle to second cycle coding –Moving from describing the data units to inferring meaning Coding Levels

43. Descriptive to InterpretativePattern – Inductive meaning Descriptive Interpretative Credentials CG,CA need for career advancement, goals Personal PSD,PG,PWL Self-doubt Personal growth Work-life balance Identity IS, ISR, ISC i d e n t i t y s h i f t i n g s t u d e n t r o l e s h i f t i n c o n t r o l Pattern CR – needing a doctorate to advance professionally and to meet personal goals for achievement PG – personal struggles evolve to address self-doubt about abilities, trying to achieve things before time runs out, balancing responsibilities with family, self, work IS – managing the shift from student to graduate, from candidate to doctor, from non-expert to expert in work settings, from losing control to re-gaining control at home and work Coding Progression

44. ‘Chunks’ of related data that have similar meaning are coded in several cycles Once coded, those ‘chunks’ become clustered in similar theme categories Create meaning for those clusters with labels Themes emerge from those clusters Interpret themes to answer research questions Step III: Data Interpretation & Themes

45. Themes Sample Transcript of Interview Data How do broad sections emerge into thematic groupings? I always wanted to get my doctorate but I never felt I had the time; then I reached a point in my career where I saw that without the credentials, I would never advance to the types of positions I aspired to..but I doubted I could do the work. I wasn’t sure I could go back to school after so much time. And did I have the time, with working and a family? These were the things I struggled with as I looked for the right program. -finally starting the program with others like me, it felt surreal. Once you switch gears from being an established administrator at a college to being a doc student, you realize you lose control over your life. You are not in charge in that classroom, like you are in your office. But also, once you say you are a doc student, people look at you differently. And people at work began to take me more seriously, ask for my opinion as if I now possessed special knowledge because I was going for the doctorate. It was the same information I had shared previously but somehow it had a special quality? Its like magic! How do you compile the clusters into emerging themes? (red for credentials, blue for personal struggles, green for shift in identity) Begin to see themes emerge: Getting the degree, becoming a new person, personal achievement…

46. Interpretation or analysis of qualitative data simultaneously occurs Researchers interpret the data as they read and re-read the data, categorize and code the data and inductively develop a thematic analysis Themes become the story or the narrative Step IV: Data Representation

47. Telling the story with the data –Storytelling, Narrative –Chronological –Flashback –Critical Incidents –Theater –Thematic –Visual representation –Figures, tables, charts Data Representation Types

48. EXCERPT: Jumping into the Abyss: Life After the Doctorate (Felice Billups) This qualitative phenomenological study sought to explore doctoral degree graduates’ perceptions of self, identity and purpose in the post-dissertation phase, seeking participant perspectives on the phenomena of transition. Considerable research has been conducted on currently enrolled doctoral students (Baird, 1997; David, 2011; Pauley, 2004; ) relative to the issues of 1) overcoming obstacles to completing the dissertation, 2) managing feelings of isolation and disengagement, 3) successfully completing dissertation research and manuscript preparation, 4) negotiating relationships with advisors and committee members, and 5) searching for teaching or scholarship positions after degree completion. Research on the doctoral degree graduate has typically been conducted on individuals in Ph.D. programs, where the post-graduation transition has focused on moving into traditional academic roles (D’Andrea, 2002; Di Pierro, 2007; Johnson & Conyers, 2001; Varney, 2010); minimal research has been conducted on Ed.D. graduates who are already actively engaged as professionals and/or practitioners in their fields, and who have also balanced work-life challenges while pursuing their degrees. The issues of personal accomplishment, anxiety, isolation, loss, hopes and aspirations, identity and role clarity, and professional recognition were all examined through the lens of the ‘lived experience’ of purposefully selected participants, all of whom recently graduated from a small Ed.D. program in the Northeast. By integrating the two conceptual frameworks of Neugarten’s (1978) adult development theory, and Lachman and James’ (1997) midlife development theory, the following themes emerged: 1) “You are not the same person!”, 2) “The degree is greater than the sum of its parts!”, 3) “Now what do I do with all this time?”, and 4) “When will you crown me King/Queen of the world?”. These themes reveal the experiences of recent doctoral degree graduates’ perceptions of the transition from doctoral student to graduate. How will it look in the end?

49. Most common types of analytic approaches: –Domain/Content –Thematic –Grounded theory/Constant comparative –Ethnographic/cultural –Metaphorical/ hermeneutical –Phenomenological –Biographical/narrative analysis –Case Study, Mixed Methods, Focus Groups Qualitative Data Analysis Types

50. The following expert lists are provided to help you match specific qualitative research designs with the appropriate qualitative data analysis strategies… If you are working with a particular research design…?

51. Grounded theory, constant comparison analysis: Birks & Mills (2011) Charmaz (2006) Glaser (1967) Strauss & Corbin (1990) Thematic Analysis Boyatzis (1998) Guest, MacQueen, Namey (2012) Ethnographic analysis: Spradley (1979) Sunstein & Chiseri-Strater (2012) Wolcott (2005, 2008) Narrative analysis: –Holstein & Gubrium (2012) –Reissman (2008) –Yussen & Ozcan (1997) APPROACHES & EXPERTS

52. Phenomenological Analysis: –Colaizzi (1978) –Giorgi (1985, 2009) –Holstein & Gubrium (2012) –Moustakas (1988, 1990) –Smith, Flowers, & Larkin (2009) –van Manen (1990) Case Study: –Stake (1995) Focus Groups: –Krueger & Casey (2009) Mixed Methods: –Creswell & Plano Clark (1995) –Tashakkori & Teddlie (2010) APPROACHES & EXPERTS

53. ATLAS/TI, HyperRESEARCH, Nvivo, MaxQDA, NUD*IST Software packages either assist with theory- building or with concept mapping Data-voice recognition software converts audio into text, such as Dragon Computer Software

54. Inductive Approach Inductive Theoretical Approach Seek to build up a theory which is adequately grounded in a number of relevant cases. Referred to as Interpretative and Grounded Theory Art of Interpretation Field Text: Consists of field notes and documents from the field Research Text: Notes and interpretations based on the filed text Working interpretative document: Writers initial attempt to make sense out of what he has learned Public Text: The final tale of the Field

55. Sampling strategies (examples) Sampling strategyDescription Intensity samplingInformation-rich cases Typical case samplingFocus on what is ‘normal’ or ‘average’ to highlight the whole population Snowball samplingFirst group of participants nominates other individuals Theory based samplingCases are selected on the basis that they represent a theoretical construct

56. Qualitative data analysis methods ApproachWhen to useExample Content analysisTo describe and categorize common words, phrases, and ideas in qualitative data. A market researcher could perform content analysis to find out what kind of language is used in descriptions of therapeutic apps. Thematic analysis To identify and interpret patterns and themes in qualitative data. A psychologist could apply thematic analysis to travel blogs to explore how tourism shapes self-identity. Textual analysisTo examine the content, structure, and design of texts. A media researcher could use textual analysis to understand how news coverage of celebrities has changed in the past decade. Discourse analysis To study communication and how language is used to achieve effects in specific contexts. A political scientist could use discourse analysis to study how politicians generate trust in election campaigns.

57. Positivist Paradigm Emphasises that human reason is supreme and that there is a single objective truth that can be discovered by science Encourages us to stress the function of objects, celebrate technology and to regard the world as a rational, ordered place with a clearly defined past, present and future

58. Theoretical Approaches to Qualitative Research Deductive Theoretical Approach Seek to use existing theory to shape the approach which you adopt to the qualitative research process and to aspects of data analysis Analytical Procedures Pattern Matching Involves predicting a pattern of outcomes based on theoretical propositions to explain what you expect to find Explanation Building Involves attempting to build an explanation while collecting and analysing the data, rather than testing a predicted explanation as in pattern matching

59. Non-Positivist Paradigm Questions the assumptions of the positivist paradigm Argues that our society places too much emphasis on science and technology Argues that this ordered, rational view of consumers denies the complexity of the social and cultural world we live in Stresses the importance of symbolic, subjective experience

60. Popularity of Qualitative Research 1Usually much cheaper than quantitative research 2No better way than qualitative research to understand in-depth the motivations and feelings of consumers 3Qualitative research can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of quantitative research

61. Limitations of Qualitative Research 1Marketing successes and failures are based on small differences in the marketing mix. Qualitative research doesn’t distinguish these differences as well as quantitative research can. 2Not representative of the population that is of interest to the researcher 3The multitude of individuals who, without formal training, profess to be experts in the field

62. Analysis Qualitative Data: An Approach Categorisation Unitising data Recognising relationships and developing the categories you are using to facilitate this Developing and testing hypotheses to reach conclusion

63. Interactive Nature of the Qualitative Process Data collection, data analysis and the development and verification of relationships and conclusion are all interrelated and interactive set of processes Allows researcher to recognise important themes, patterns and relationships as you collect data Allows you to re-categorise existing data to see whether themes and patterns and relationships exist in the data already collected Allows you to adjust your future data collection approach to see whether they exist in other cases

64. Tools for helping the Analytical Process Summaries Should contain the key points that emerge from undertaking the specific activity Self Memos Allow you to make a record of the ideas which occur to you about any aspect of your research,as you think of them Researcher Diary