1. Hottest of the hotspots: Philippine biodiversity in peril
Pithecophaga jeferyii (Philippine Eagle)
Endemic to Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Leyte
30 breeding pairs in the wild
Photo: Oliver Langrad, Conservation International

2. Hottest of the hotspots: Philippine biodiversity in peril
Workshop on Philippine Biodiversity
Youth Ecology Camp, Assumption Antipolo, April 13-17, 2010
Facilitator: Mr. Henry G. Calilung, Science Teacher,
Holistic Education and Development Center, Taytay, Rizal

3. What is biodiversity?
biological diversity in an environment as indicated by numbers of different species of plants and animals (Merriam-Webster 2010)
variety of life forms
Introduction

4. Are there kinds of biodiversity? (Miller 2001)
Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Ecological diversity
Introduction

5. Genetic diversity – refers to variety of genomes within a population; different sets of genes produce different characteristics within the same species
Seeds of the bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean) reflect the genetic diversity within the species.
Farmers in Swaziland, South Africa, take advantage of this by planting seeds of mixed colors, shapes and sizes. This way, they avoid having their crop wiped out in the event of a pest attack.
Photo:
Introduction

6. Species diversity – refers to the variety that exists within a community of plants and animals
An artist’s rendition of an African watering hole. Such a gathering is not possible of course.
Photo:
Introduction

7. Ecological diversity – refers to the variety of communities that exist in their natural environment
Photo:
Mt. Apo, Mindanao
Photo:
Lake Balinsasayao, Negros
Tubbataha Marine National Park, Palawan
Introduction

8. Are all forms of life equally important? (Miller 2001)
Indicator species
Keystone species
Endemics
Introduction

9. Indicator species – serve as early warning devices for an ongoing disturbance that is damaging the natural balance of an ecosystem. They are very sensitive to pollution and are the first to be affected.
Frogs are useful indicators since their sensitive skin makes them susceptible to even small amounts of pollutants. In addition, they live on both land and water and so serve as barometers of good environmental health for both ecosystems.
Photo:
Introduction

10. Keystone species – not necessarily the most abundant in a community, these species perform ecological functions on which the whole ecosystem depends. Without them, everything collapses.
With their massive bodies and tusks, elephants can effectively dig the ground in search of water during the dry season. The holes they make then become watering holes for other animals.
Photo:
Introduction

11. Endemics – these are species that are unique to a locality
Endemics – these are species that are unique to a locality. The conservation of endemics takes top priority since they are found nowhere else on the planet.
The Gold-ringed Cat Snake (Boiga dendrophila divergens) is one of the largest snakes in the world (6-8 feet in length). They are found only in Luzon and are classified as Vulnerable because their mangrove habitats are being destroyed.
Photo: Gernot Vogel in
Introduction

12. The Galapagos Islands ten times over
Philippines:
The Galapagos Islands ten times over
Nepenthes sp (Pitcher plants, lapsay),
Of the 86 global sp, 8 are Philippine endemics;
N. Merilliana can hold 1.5 L of water
Photo: Phill Mann, International Carnivorous Plant Society

13. The Philippines as a megadiversity country
(Carr and Langhammer 2010)
Megadiversity countries hold 70% of the world’s plant and animal life forms:
Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ecuador, Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, South Africa, United States, Venezuela
Philippines: the Galapagos Islands ten times over

14. The Philippines as a megadiversity country
(Carr and Langhammer 2010)
The world’s megadiversity countries:
Map:
Philippines: the Galapagos Islands ten times over

15. Philippine terrestrial vertebrates
(Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
Total Species
Endemic Species
% Endemic
Land Mammals
174
111
64%
Breeding Land Birds
395
172
44%
Reptiles
258
168
65%
Amphibians
101 78
77%
TOTAL
928
529
57%
Philippines: the Galapagos Islands ten times over

16. Comparative endemism (Ong et al, 2002)
Country
Total Species
Endemic Species
% Endemic
Land Area (km2)
Phil.
928
529
57%
300,780
Spain
435 25 6%
451,171
Brazil
3,131
788
25%
8,511,965
Philippines: the Galapagos Islands ten times over

17. Comparative endemism (Ong et al, 2002)
Endemic Group
Global Rank
Birds
5th
Mammals
Reptiles
8th
Plants
Non-fish vertebrates
9th
Philippines: the Galapagos Islands ten times over

18. Speciation: Darwin revisited
Phloeomys pallidus (Northern slender-tailed cloud rat, Bu-ot)
At 2.5 kilos, these cloud rats are the largest in the world.
Endemic to Benguet, Kalinga-Apayao, Bataan/Zambales
Large and meaty, cloud-rats are heavily hunted
Photo by: WLR Oliver in

19. What is speciation?
There is a grandeur to this view of life.. that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on.. endless forms most beautiful and wonderful have been and are being evolved. (Charles Darwin as quoted in Miller 2001)
Speciation: Darwin revisited

20. What is a species? (Campbell and Reece 2002)
How do species evolve?
Reproductive isolation
Symaptric vs allopatric speciation
Speciation begins with isolation. A population may be divided by geographic barriers (allopatric speciation) or by chromosomal mutations (sympatric speciation).
Figure:
Speciation: Darwin revisited

21. Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity
(Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
Gallicolumba luzonica (Luzon Bleeding Heart)
Endemic to Luzon
Near Threatened (Trapped for food and for the illegal pet trade)
Photo: Ken Llio in

22. Philippine Islands – from the seafloor via plate tectonics and volcanic activity
Palawan & Mindoro – from the Eurasian mainland
Samar & Leyte – formed 50M yrs ago; where Hawaii is at present
Luzon – 15M yrs ago; rotated in place several times
Mindanao – 5M yrs ago; came from 3 separate islands
View geological history of the Philippine Archipelago
(press esc to return to this slide)
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

23. Ice Age Islands (20,000 yrs ago)
Sea level was 120m lower.
Islands became connected:
Greater Luzon
Greater Negros-Panay
Greater Palawan
Greater Mindanao
Chart:
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

24. Ice Age Islands (20,000 yrs ago)
Deep sea channels kept smaller islands isolated
Mindoro
Sibuyan
Siquijor
Camiguin
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

25. The Philippine Archipelago 20,000 years ago
The Philippine Archipelago 20,000 years ago. Note the formation of the Greater Islands (Luzon, Negros-Panay, Mindanao, Palawan). Note also that smaller islands have always been isolated (Sibuyan, Camiguin).
Map:
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

26. Mountain ecosystems Most Philippine islands have prominent mountains.
Mountains harbor distinct forest types based on differences in temperature & rainfall.
Each forest type produces its own unique set of plants and animals.
Humus, the sponge-like-flood-controlling layer of decomposing plant material, becomes more abundant the higher one goes up a mountain.
Map:
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

27. Forest types in Philippine mountains – Lowland forest
Lowland forest in Pasonanca Natural Park, Zamboanga Peninsula, Southwestern Mindanao.
The largest trees (2-3 meters diameter, m tall) are found in the lowland forests. Most of these trees are dipterocarps which are known for their beautiful, lustrous wood collectively known as “Philippine mahogany.”
Lianas and other vines reach from the forest floor to the canopy providing a natural highway for monkeys, squirrels, civet-cats and monkeys.
Photo:
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

28. Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity
Photo:
The Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus) produces, aside from its timber, an oily resin used in lamps and varnishing compounds.
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

29. Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity
Dipterocarps take 40 years to produce their first seeds (above) and about 100 years to reach marketable size.
Photo:
Most lowland forests have been decimated and nearly all Philippine species are threatened with extinction. Of the 45 native Philippine dipterocarps, nearly half are found nowhere else on Earth.
Photo:
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

30. Forest types in Philippine mountains – Montane forest
Montane forest in Mt. Polis, Ifugao, Luzon.
Montane forest trees are shorter (max of 25 m) and are much more decorated with vines, pandans, pitcher plants and orchids.
The montane forest receives 2 to 3 times more rain than the lowlands. Rain is well distributed throughout the year.
Photo:
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

31. Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity
Considered as the Queen of Philippine orchids, the Waling-waling (Vanda sanderiana) is nearly extinct in the wild forests of Mindanao due to over collection.
Montane forests feature an abundant array of orchids and pitcher plants.
Photo: Greg Allikas in
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

32. Forest types in Philippine mountains – Mossy forest
Lower mossy forest in Mt. Pulag, the highest peak in Luzon.
Mossy forests are the wettest places in the Philippines receiving as much as 5 times more rainfall than at sea level. Combined with a cool temperature, the abundant rain fosters an explosion of plant life (mostly mosses, ferns, and orchids). Trees are kept small (2-3 m) and are often gnarled and twisted by the wind.
Photo:
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

33. Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity
The sunbirds are the hummingbirds of the Philippines. Shown here is the Apo sunbird (Aethopyga boltoni) found only in Mindanao.
Mossy forests feature abundant species of birds, rodents and apmhibians.
Photo:
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

34. Each of the Ice Age islands are considered faunal regions and act as centers of diversification.
(Heaney et al, 2010)
Greater Luzon – 70% endemism
Greater Mindanao – 80% endemism
Sibuyan Island (463 km2) – 4 endemic mammals & 1 bat, more than any European country
Camiguin Island (265 km2) – 2 endemic mammals, 1 frog, 12 plants
Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

35. The study of biodiversity
Boiga dendrophila levitoni (Mangrove cat snake)
Endemic to Panay
Vulnerable (Destruction of mangroves for prawn farms)
Photo: Maren Gaulke in

36. The study of biodiversity (Stiling 2002)
Species richness – total number of species
Species evenness – distribution of individuals per species
Field studies (A need for real heroes!) – field studies are financially and physically challenging, sometimes even life-threatening
The study of biodiversity

37. Trapping for mammals
The study of biodiversity

38. Netting for birds and bats
The study of biodiversity

39. Camera traps for dangerous carnivores
The study of biodiversity

40. Forest studies
The study of biodiversity

41. Canopy studies
The study of biodiversity

42. Classifying threatened life forms (IUCN 2010)
Extinct (EX)
Extinct in the Wild (EW)
Critically Endangered (CR) : > 250 individuals
Endangered (EN) : > 2,500 ind
Vulnerable (VU) : > 10,000 ind
Near Threatened (NT)
Least Concern (LC)
Data Deficient (DD)
Not Evaluated (NE)
The study of biodiversity

43. Workshop # 1: Mark-recapture game
Arctictis binturong ssp. whitei (Palawan binturong, Bear cat)
Endemic to Palawan
Vulnerable (Hunted for food and medicinal uses)
Photo:

44. Philippine biodiversity in peril
Rafflesia speciosa (Bunga-bangkay, Uruy)
Endemic to Panay (5 new sp since 2002)
Critically Endangered (Deforestation)
Photo: Dr. Julie Barcelona, Philippine National Herbarium

45. What are hotspots?
“Hotspots are the richest and most threatened reservoirs of plant and animal life on Earth.”
(Carr and Langhammer 2010)
There are 34 hotspots in the world. The Philippines is ranked by many as the hottest.
Philippine biodiversity in peril

46. The world’s hotspots Philippine biodiversity in peril
Photo:
Philippine biodiversity in peril

47. Vital statistics (Carr and Langhammer 2010)
Hotspot Original Extent (km2)
297,179
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km2)
20,803
Endemic Plant Species
6,091
Endemic Threatened Birds 56
Endemic Threatened Mammals 47
Endemic Threatened Amphibians 48
Extinct Species 2
Human Population Density (people/km2)
273
Area Protected by law (km2)
32,404
Area Significantly Protected (km2)
18,060
Philippine biodiversity in peril

48. Vital statistics of the Philippines’ ecosystems:
Philippine biodiversity in peril

49. State of the Philippine forests (Heaney and Regalado, JR. 1998)
Pre-Spanish times: 95% forest cover (probably most forested archipelago in the world)
1600 : 90% old growth forest cover
1900 : 70% cover
Some islands already denuded (Cebu)
Others untouched
(Protected by: Malaria in Mindoro; Isolation in Palawan; Moro people in Mindanao)
1997 : 7% cover
Philippine biodiversity in peril

50. State of the Philippine forests (Mallari et al, 2001)
Philippine biodiversity in peril

51. Summative data on Philippine wildlife (Ong et al, 2002)
# Sp
Endemic
Species
% End
Threatened
Threatened Endemics
Amphibians
101 79
78% 24
24 (100%)
Reptiles
258
170
66% 8
4 (50%)
Birds
576
195
34% 74
59 (80%)
Mammals
204
111
54% 51
41 (80%)
TOTAL
1139
555
49%
157
128 (82%)
Philippine biodiversity in peril

52. Workshop # 2: The Reasons Why Tarsius syrichta (Philippine Tarsier)
Endemic to Greater Mindanao; Bohol
Endangered (Less than 1,000 individuals in the wild)
Photo: Jeroen Hellingman in

53. Culprit or scapegoat? (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
Habitat loss is the immediate cause of extinction.
Commercial logging and farming
Mining
Subsistence farming
Over population is the favorite suspect.
Philippine biodiversity in peril

54. Negros: an ordinary example of environmental devastation (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
1st Spanish census showed 25,000 people
Coastal communities
Hunter-gatherers and kaingeros
1800s – 30,000 people; little change
Philippine biodiversity in peril

55. Negros: an ordinary example of environmental devastation (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
Smallpox vaccine and other medicines
Hacienda system began
Triangular social caste emerged
Population boomed: from 30,000 to 500,000
Philippine biodiversity in peril

56. Negros: an ordinary example of environmental devastation (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
American colonial government (1898)
Granted the 1st logging concessions
Subsidized the sugar industry
Population: from 500,000 to 3M by end of s
Philippine biodiversity in peril

57. Negros: an ordinary example of environmental devastation (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
Marcos regime
Gave logging concessions to supporters at 1 peso per hectare (100,000 hectares for 25 yrs)
Low taxation
Wealth gap increased
Philippine biodiversity in peril

58. Population and forest cover trend in Negros (1600 to 2000)
Chart:
Philippine biodiversity in peril

59. Loss of forest cover in Negros (1875 to 1992)
Map:
Philippine biodiversity in peril

60. Negros: an ordinary example of environmental devastation (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
Today
Less than 6% of the forest remains
Starving coastal communities
Rich landowners (sugar & copra)
Desperate upland farmers
Philippine biodiversity in peril

61. The Cost of Loss (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
Medinilla magnifica (kapa-kapa, rose grape)
Endemic to Luzon and Mindoro
Rare in the wild due to destruction of lowland forests.

62. The cost of loss (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
Deforestation results to massive erosion (250 tons per hectare per year).
Siltation destroys coral reefs.
Siltation lessens life of dams (Magat dam).
Flooding and drought worsens.
Indirect losses of income.
Opportunity cost.
The cost of loss

63. Magat Dam, Isabela, Luzon
Designed to operate for 90 years, Magat dam was built in 1983 at a cost of 6.5 B pesos. Siltation from the denuded watershed forest has now reduced its operational life by half.
Photo:
Photo:
The cost of loss

64. The Ormoc Tragedy (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
The watershed forests were cleared for plantations owned by only 6 families (including the mayor).
November 1991: River water rose 10 ft in just 3 hrs. 7,000 people died.
Main roads, bridges, crops were destroyed. Ormoc Bay was filled with muddy water.
The cost of loss

65. The Ormoc Tragedy The cost of loss
Photo:
The cost of loss

66. The Ormoc Tragedy (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
A year later, no reforestation efforts have begun. According to a city councilor:
We are still waiting for a plan for reforestation that will not disrupt the economy. To make reforestation attractive, the landowners must be convinced that the economic value of the trees will be commensurate to the value of the sugar cane.
The cost of loss

67. The cost of loss (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
Deforestation worsens drought conditions. The groundwater system is not renewed.
Panay is one of the most deforested island.
450km2 of farmland affected; 118,000 tons of rice lost.
Starving farmers cut trees for charcoal.
Water in Iloilo city is rationed (4 days a wk).
The cost of loss

68. Bacuit Bay, Palawan The cost of loss
Photo:
The cost of loss

69. Indirect income losses in Bacuit Bay, Palawan, 1985
(Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
Coral reefs (ecotourism) and fisheries = $53M
78km2 mountainside watershed with 50% forest cover.
May to Dec (1986) : Logging intensified. Erosion increased to 49,080 tons. Killed 50% of corals.
Ecotourism and fisheries now worth = $23M
Income from logging = $8.5M
Total worth of the Bay = $31.5M
Net loss of income = $21.5M
The cost of loss

70. Opportunity Costs (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
Dicaeum quadricolor (Cebu flowerpecker)
Endemic to Cebu
Critically Endangered (less than 100 in the wild)

71. Opportunity Costs (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998)
Beauty
Genetic diversity (crops)
50% of current medicines come from plant and animal compounds
The cost of loss

72. What is being done? (Ong et al, 2002)
Strongylodon macrobotrys (Jade Vine)
Endemic to Luzon
Threatened (rare in the wild due to overcollection)
Photo:

73. Social movement
National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS), 1992
National Biodiversity Action Plan, 1995
Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priority-Setting Program, 2000
What is being done?

74. Individual action. What can you do? (Miller 2001)
Support a green economy.
Practice a sustainable lifestyle.
Educate yourself and others.
What is being done?

75. Live simply so that others may simply live.
Haste makes waste.
Wants – Needs = Waste
Walk your talk.