1. Chapter 7: Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)

2. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Chapter Objectives
To describe the expansion of motor skills during toddlerhood, indicating their importance for the child’s expanding capacity to explore the environment and experience opportunities for mastery
To document accomplishments in language development and describe the influences of interactive experiences and the language environment for gaining communicative competence

3. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Chapter Objectives (cont.)
To describe the development of fantasy play and its importance for cognitive and social development
To examine the development of self-control, especially impulse management and goal attainment, highlighting strategies young children use to help them regulate their actions

4. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Chapter Objectives (cont.)
To analyze the psychosocial crisis of autonomy versus shame and doubt, to clarify the central process of imitation, and to describe the prime adaptive ego strength of will and the core pathology of compulsion
To apply a psychosocial analysis to the topic of day care, emphasizing the impact of the social environment on patterns of development during toddlerhood

5. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Case Study: Alice Walker Goes To The Fair
Thought Questions
What is the spirit of toddlerhood that is captured in this case?
How does the case relate to the tasks of locomotion, language, fantasy play, and self-control?
What aspects of Alice’s self-concept appear to be forming in this episode?
What images of her mother and father are being established at this age?

6. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Elaboration of Locomotion
Plays a central role in the toddler’s psychosocial development, facilitating the transformation of ideas into action, and prompting new types of interactions with the social and physical environment
Caregivers must limit locomotion to protect child’s safety
Advances occur in walking and running; jumping; hopping; throwing and catching; pedaling and steering

7. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: Semiotic Thinking
Piaget describes the years from about 2 to 5 or 6 as the stage of preoperational thought or a transitional period during which the schemes that were developed during infancy are represented internally
The most significant achievement of this new stage of cognitive development is the capacity for semiotic or representational thinking - understanding one thing can stand for another through signs and symbols
Symbols are usually related in some way to the object for which they stand

8. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: Semiotic Thinking (cont.)
Signs stand for things in a more abstract, arbitrary way (e.g., words)

9. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: Communicative Competence
Children become adept at using all the aspects of language that permit effective participation in the language environment of their culture

10. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Figure 7.1 Three Areas of the Brain That Are Intimately Related to Speech: Broca’s Area, Wernicke’s Area, and the Arcuate Fasciculus, a Bundle of Nerve Fibers That Connects the Two
Figure 7.1 Three Areas of the Brain That Are Intimately Related to Speech: Broca’s Area, Wernicke’s Area, and the Arcuate Fasciculus, a Bundle of Nerve Fibers That Connects the Two. Damage to these areas leads to a loss of the ability to speak, called aphasia. Damage to Broca’s area results in an inability to produce speech, but language comprehension remains functional. Damage to Wernicke’s area does not affect the ability to produce language, but understanding is lost. People with Wernicke’s aphasia can produce words clearly, but they do not make sense. People who have damage to the arcuate fasciculus can understand language, but their speech does not make sense, and they cannot repeat words.

11. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: Communication Accomplishments in Infancy
Language Perception: capacity to recognize language sounds, including phonetic combinations of letters and words and the intonation of sentences
Babbling: characterized by sounds of connecting consonants and vowels and repeating these combinations occurs around 6 to 10 months
Communication with Gestures: by 8 months infants use gestures to achieve a goal

12. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: Communication Accomplishments in Infancy (cont.)
Early Grammar: refers to rules that guide combination of words and phrases in order to preserve meaning and is apparent by 7 or 8 months

13. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: Communication Accomplishments in Infancy (cont.)
First Words
Receptive language: around 8 months of age infants understand the meanings of some individual words and phrases
A significant event in the development of language production is the naming of objects
Holophrases are single-word utterances accompanied by a gesture, action, vocal intonation, or emotion

14. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: Communicative Competence in Toddlerhood
Vocabulary: during the period form 12 to 16 months, infants make significant progress in learning the names of objects and applying them to pictures or real examples
The average toddler of 30 months has a spoken vocabulary of 570 words. In order to accomplish this feat, children seem to fast-map new meanings as they experience words in conversation

15. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: Communicative Competence in Toddlerhood (cont.)
Two-word sentences, or telegraphic speech, occurs from 16 to 30 months of age

16. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: Communicative Competence in Toddlerhood (cont.)
Grammatical Transformations: by the age of 4, children appear to be able to structure their sentences using most grammatical rules without instruction
Once children learn the rule for expressing the past tense by adding ‘ed’, they occasionally overregularize this rule and begin to make errors (e.g., runned)
Grammatical errors children make alert us to the fact that they are working to figure out a system of rules with which to communicate meaning

17. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: Language Development Beyond Toddlerhood
Although fundamentals of language are well established by age 4, there are still some things that toddlers cannot achieve with language
Important language functions develop more fully during early and middle childhood
Language becomes a vehicle for creative expression

18. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: Language Development Beyond Toddlerhood (cont.)
Language plays a critical role in the resolution of subsequent psychosocial crises, especially the establishment of group identity, intimacy, and generativity

19. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)

20. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: The Language Environment
When speaking to toddlers, adults and older children adjust their spoken language in the following ways:
They simplify utterances to correspond with the toddler’s interests and comprehension level
They emphasize the here and now
They use a more restricted vocabulary
They do a lot of paraphrasing
They use simple, well-formed sentences
They use frequent repetitions
They use a slow rate of speech with pauses between utterances and after the major content words

21. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Language Development: The Language Environment (cont.)
Scaffolding occurs in which children try to match the verbal expressions used by adults
Adults use expansion to help clarify a child’s meaning of speech
Adults also use prompting, often in the form of a question, to help with the child’s language development and communication skills
Reading and language games also enhance language development

22. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Fantasy Play: The Nature of Pretend Play
The worlds of make-believe, poetry, fairy tales, and folklore, the domains we often associate with childhood, open up to the toddler as the ability for symbolization expands
Sensorimotor play consists of the repetition of motor activity
Symbolic play, or pretend play, appears around 2 years of age. A vivid mental image of an action permits them to copy what they recall rather than what they see

23. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Fantasy Play: The Capacity for Pretense
Pretense, whether through symbolic play, symbolic drawing, or telling make-believe stories, requires that children understand the difference between pretend and reality

24. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Fantasy Play: Changes in Fantasy Play During Toddlerhood
Children engaged in solitary pretense are involved in their own fantasy activities
Children engaged in social play join with other children in some activity
In social pretend play, children have to coordinate their pretense

25. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Fantasy Play: Changes in Fantasy Play During Toddlerhood
Play changes in 4 ways during toddlerhood
The action component becomes more complex as children integrate a sequence of actions
Children’s focus shifts from the self to fantasies that involve others and the creation of multiple roles
The play involves the use of substitute objects, including objects children only pretend to have, and eventually the invention of complex characters and situations
The play becomes more organized and planned, and play leaders emerge

26. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Fantasy Play: The Contributions of Fantasy Play to Development
Children use fantasy play to experiment with and understand their social and physical environments and to expand their thinking
Vygotsky viewed fantasy play as a zone of proximal development of the child in which a range of potential could be reached

27. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Fantasy Play: The Contributions of Fantasy Play to Development (cont.)
Adults and more advanced peers promote development by enabling children in activities and problem-solving tasks that draw children into their zone of proximal development, the new directions along which their capacities are moving

28. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Fantasy Play: The Role of Play Companions
Play companions can elaborate a child’s capacity for fantasy, legitimize fantasy play, and help the child to explore new domains of fantasy

29. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Self-Control
Language and Fantasy as Strategies for Controlling Impulse: talking about and acting out feelings and needs enables adults to help children understand more about their emotions and to help them devise strategies for self-regulation

30. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Self-Control
Language and fantasy as strategies for controlling impulses
Parents articulate the family or cultural rules of emotional expression
Adults help modify the intensity of emotions through reassuring or distracting talk
Adults give children ideas for ways to manage their impulses
Children listen to and imitate adults who talk about their own strong emotions and impulses

31. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Self-Control: Control of Impulses
Increasing sensitivity to the distress of others
Disciple strategies
Power assertion
Love withdrawal
Inductions
Parental modeling and reinforcement of acceptable behaviors are also associated with the development of impulse control

32. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Self-Control: Control of Impulses (cont.)
Discipline that is immediate or as close in time to the situation as possible, and is appropriately firm, but not overreactive helps develop self-control
Individual differences in the ability to control impulses
Toddlers differ in their capacity to emphasize with the distress of others

33. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Self-Control: Control of Impulses (cont.)
Differences in temperament affect self-control
Effortful control: a child’s ability to suppress a dominant response and perform a subdominant response instead
Capacity for self-regulation may depend on the quality of the mother-infant attachment
Delay gratification: a child must exert willpower in order to resist a strong immediate pull or temptation

34. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Figure 7.3 Factors Associated with the Ability to Control Impulses

35. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Self-Control: Control of Impulses (cont.)
Self-regulated goal attainment, or a toddlers feelings that they can direct their behavior and the behavior of others to achieve intended outcomes, is also associated with the development of self-control
Agency - view of themselves as the originators of action—expands to include a broad array of behaviors
Speech plays a central role in self-directed goal attainment and practical problem solving

36. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
The Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
Autonomy: the ability to behave independently, to perform actions on one’s own
Shame and Doubt: some children fail to emerge from toddlerhood with a sense of mastery
Shame: an intense emotion that can result from social ridicule or criticism and internal conflict
Doubt: a lack of self-confidence and worth and have a constant sense of failure

37. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
The Central Process: Imitation
The primary mechanism by which toddlers emerge as autonomous individuals is imitation
Once toddlers succeed in imitating a certain skill, that still belongs to them and they can use it for any purpose they like

38. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and The Core Pathology
Will: capacity of the mind to direct and control action
Compulsion: repetitive behaviors that are motivated by impulse or restriction on the expression of it
Children in this stage devise some well-oriented rituals
Obsessions are persistent, repetitive thoughts that serve as mechanisms for binding anxiety
Compulsions are repetitive-ritualized actions that serve the same function

39. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
The Impact of Poverty on Psychosocial Development in Toddlerhood
17 percent of children under age 18 are poor according to federal standards
Poverty is often associated with conditions that are disruptive to optimal development, including poor nutrition, inadequate health care, limited parental education, unstimulating parent-child interactions, and harsh punishment
Parents living in poverty emphasize obedience and are less likely to use reasons and explanations in their discipline practices

40. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
The Impact of Poverty on Psychosocial Development in Toddlerhood (cont.)
Poor families are more likely to live in high-risk neighborhoods where children are likely to be exposed to violence

41. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)
Applied Topic: Child Care
The impact of child care on intelligence and academic achievement
The impact of child care on social competence
The impact of child care on peer relations
Directions for the future of child care in the United States

42. Toddlerhood (Ages 2 and 3)