1. RESEARCH DESIGN
Vivek Patkar

2. Links between the Basic Elements of Research
ONTOLOGY
EPISTEMOLOGY
METHODOLOGY
METHODS
SOURCES
What’s out
there to know?
What & how can
we know about it?
How can we go about
acquiring that knowledge?
Which precise
procedure to use?
Which data
can we collect?

3. Research Strategy: A general approach
to research determined by the kind of
question that the research study hopes
to answer
Research Design: A general plan for
implementing a research strategy. It gives
details like whether the study will involve
groups or individuals and how many variables
Research Procedure: An exact, step-by-step
description of a specific research study

4. Inductive Research Strategy
Objective is to establish generalisation (what, why questions)
Three principles -
Accumulation: knowledge grows by the addition of further well-attested facts.
Induction: from valid statements describing observations, valid generalisations can be inferred.
Instance confirmation: belief in the validity of generalisation increases with number of instances that have been observed.

5. Deductive Research Strategy
Objective is to test generalisation, hypothesis, theory (how questions, predictions)
Put forward a hypothesis that helps building a theory.
Deduce conclusions.
Examine critically the logic of argument in the theory.
Test the conclusions by gathering appropriate data.
If data are not consistent with the conclusions, the theory is judged as false, otherwise, temporarily supported (but not proven). [K. Pooper’s Principle of Falsification]

6. Retroductive Research Strategy
Objective is to find mechanism or lay account for explaining (how questions, evaluation)
To explain observable phenomena try to discover suitable patterns by constructing a model of them.
If model correctly represents the patterns, the phenomena might be causally explained
Test further consequences of the model, If tests are successful, existence of the proposed arrangement is acceptable.
Repeat the whole model building process to explain known arrangements.

7. Abductive Research Strategy
Objective is to obtain technical account from lay account (exploration, description, understand)
Meaning and intentions which direct behaviour of the people is to be captured.
Describe this inside view and do not impose outsider views.
Turn the lay descriptions of social life to technical descriptions of social life.
Develop a theory or theories; it is like grasping the unknown whole from the known parts.

8. Purposes: What issues to research and why?
CONCEPTUAL
CONTEXT
PURPOSES
RESEARCH
QUESTION
METHODOLOGY
VALIDITY
Purposes: What issues to research and why?
Conceptual Context: What theories will guide the study?
Research Question: What is the focus and how various
sub-questions are inter-related?
Methodology: What techniques to be used?
Validity: How one can go wrong? Why should one
believe the results obtained?

9. FOUR PHASES OF RESEARCH
Research Interest and Idea: selecting problem & expanding
Research Design Phase:
1. specifying concepts and variables in the selected problem
2. operationalising concepts to help measuring variables
3. choice of data collection method
- primary data:
Survey : questionnaire, interview, observation
Experiment, Field study, Case study, Content analysis
- secondary data
4. sampling : Probability or Non-probability
Empirical Phase: data collection and processing
Interpretive Phase: data analysis and report writing
FOUR PHASES OF RESEARCH

10. Design Purpose
To provide comprehensive answers to the research questions
To control the variables that may influence the research outcome
{For example, in a study on voting behaviour and group conformity the variable sex may be controlled by selecting only male subjects for the research}
To provide a built-in system to check the factors that may affect validity of the research outcome

11. Research Design
A plan guiding the process of collecting, analysing, validating and interpreting data is called the research design.
Helps in determining whether the obtained interpretation can be generalised to a larger population or to a different situation.
Aims at eliminating as many alternative explanations for a phenomenon as possible.
Depends on the type of research, and time and money available.

12. Research Design Stages
Planning stage: identification, selection and formulation of research problem; formulation of hypothesis and its linkage with theory and literature
Selection stage: drawing up the design of the experiment or inquiry, definition and measurement of variables, sampling procedures, tools and techniques of gathering data
Operational stage: drawing of the finances and budgeting, recruitment and training of the staff
Completion stage: analysis, interpretation and validation of data and report writing

13. Research Design Elements
Types of information and proposed sources that would be tapped.
A strategy for gathering and analysing the data.
An outline of the procedure that will be employed for validating the results
An estimate of the time and cost to complete the study.

14. Research Design Scope Data gathering strategy
Sample size and selection method
Instruments that would be used: questionnaire & interview passive observations
- participative observations desk study
Justification for particular method selection
Ethical issues that may be involved and how will they be dealt
with, should also be stated.

15. Constructing a Research Design
Influences
Research
Perspective
Biographical
research
Grounded
theory
Social
representations
Theory
Epistemology
Assumptions
Previous
Questions
Methods
Components
Audiences
and writing
Intended
generalisation
comparisons
Sampling
Criteria and
strategies for
quality
Triangulation
Qual/Qual
Qual/Quant
Interest
in an issue
Research
Design
Doing
the research
Resources
Constructing a Research Design

16. Features of Good Design
Built around a clear research question
Well linked to the theoretical background
Manageable in resources and time
Clear in decision about sampling and selection of the particular methods
Sensitive, flexible and adaptive to the field conditions
Open to new insights during the research

17. Research Methodology, Designs & Methods
Positivist Methodology
(Quantitative Approach)
Postpositivist Methodology
(Qualitative Approach)
Exploratory
Designs
Descriptive
Designs
Causal
Designs
Explanatory
Designs
Interpretive
Designs
Critical
Designs
Herme-
neutic
Studies
Action
Res.
Studies
In-depth
Interview
Field
Surveys
Single
Factor
Exp.
Case
Studies
Ehnog-
phic
Studies
Focus
Group
Maths.
Models
Multi-
Factor
Exp.
Semiotic
Studies
Partici-
pative
Studies

18. Exploratory Designs (Quantitative Studies)
To get insight about the research problem is the objective (pilot studies)
These are small-sample designs
They are to help evaluate the importance of variables in the study and drop those marginally related
They help in hypothesis formulation and testing
Data collection is done from both primary and secondary sources

19. Descriptive Designs (Quantitative Studies)
An extensive picture of the phenomenon is obtained by using a large sample
Field studies probe a few issues in-depth
Field surveys are broader; more popular
Cross-sectional studies are one-shot assessment of a sample of respondents, which could be divided in different classes say by income, education, gender
Longitudinal studies use panels of the same participants over a time period to assess the change in response and measure it

20. Causal Designs (Quantitative Studies)
They are relational (how one or more variables are related to each other) or
They are experimental to know cause or causes of change in a variable or event (what leads to what)
Elaborate tools from statistics labelled as Design of Experiments are employed depending on research problem and environment

21. Hawthrone Experiment: Randomly chosen few workers of the Western Electric company (Hawthorne, New Jersey, USA) were moved to a special location and subjected to variations in working conditions like lighting, period of rest and speed of machines; surprisingly, performance increased with both positive and negative changes.
Reason:- Workers being singled out for attention turned out to be the reason and such change is captured by intervening or confounding variables [Reactivity]

22. Explanatory Designs (Qualitative Studies)
Used primarily for providing description as well as meaning of the phenomenon
Prediction is also the goal
Use of simple statistical analysis is made for explaining difference in responses from two or more groups

23. Interpretive Designs (Qualitative Studies)
To establish a meaning to an event or social situation is the basic objective
Concentrate on norms, standards, rules and values that are held in common and how these all influence human interactions
Study of symbols, artifacts, beliefs or meanings attributed by people in the study situation is carried out to describe and explain the phenomenon in greater depth

24. Critical Designs (Qualitative Studies)
To change people’s belief is the overriding objective
To bring people to actions that are commensurate with accepted truth and goodness is another aim
Being increasingly used in public administration, sociological and education research

25. Combined Research Designs
Archival studies: study of historical records to establish an understanding of the circumstances that characterise an event or period (documents like pamphlets, press releases, annual reports, newspaper articles)
Media analysis: use of more current records of different media is done (Content Analysis is employed extensively)
Artifact studies: study of objects to gain understanding of culture and values of groups (study of items in the dumping sites, advertisements)

26. PROPOSAL DESIGN Abstract Introduction Setting Pilot Studies
Purposes
Conceptual
Context
Setting
Pilot Studies
Research
Questions
Theories, Hypotheses
Methodology
Methods
Logical, Statistical
Validity
Implications

27. Steps in Sampling Survey
Statement of objective
Definition of the population to be studied
Determination of sampling frame (listing of all the elements)
Determination of sample size
Selection of sampling method
Sample selection & field work
Determination of sampling error S A M P L I N G

28. Types of Sampling Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience
Judgment
Quota
Snowball
Theoretical
Simple Random
Systematic
Stratified Random
Cluster
Multi-Stage
Multi-Phase
Successive
Sequential
Concentration Principle:
Focus the sampling on those
cases, which are particularly
important for the study issue
Useful for longitudinal studies

29. Simple Random Sampling
Each element or unit in the entire population has an equal chance of selection.
Selection Method: Use the following means to pick up the sample unit till the desired number of units are selected,
- Lottery system
Random Number Tables
It is simple to implement but is time consuming and laborious when the sample size is large.
Replacement Method: Selected unit may be put back and could be selected again
Non-Replacement Method: Selected unit is not considered again

30. Systematic Sampling
Selection Method: The first unit is selected randomly, but thereafter, the units are selected according to a systematic plan (sampling interval).
Systematic sampling will be more precise only if units within the sample are heterogeneous.
It is simple in operation but
should be used with caution for the population with periodicity.
Every 3rd unit
If we have 500 people and we want a sample of 50 people then
the sampling interval is 500/50 = 10. Thus select a random integer from 1 to 10. Say it is 4, then sampling unit will be 4,14, 24 and so on till 500 to get
50 units.

31. Stratified Random Sampling
Selection Method: The population is divided in non-overlapping homogeneous groups called strata and sample unit is selected randomly from each strata either by equal allocation logic or in proportion to the number of units in a stratum or according to any designated scheme.
It provides a better cross-section of the population and brings a more precision in the estimate.
Newspaper Readers
Urdu
Marathi
Hindi
English
Gujarati

32. Cluster Sampling
Selection Method: Divide the population in large number of segments called clusters and select the required number of clusters either by equal or unequal probabilities of selection and all the units in the selected clusters are to be surveyed.
Though it is statistically less efficient than the simple random sampling, it is less costly for covering say, a large area.

33. Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research for getting a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.
Judgment sampling is an extension of convenience sampling. For example, one may decide to draw the entire sample from one "representative" college, even though the population includes all colleges.

34. Non-Probability Sampling (2)
Quota sampling is the non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. Here the strata and their proportions as they are represent in the population are fixed. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of units from each stratum.
Snowball sampling is used when the desired sample characteristic is rare or it is extremely difficult to locate respondents, like in the AIDS studies. Here one element leads to another and so on.

35. Theoretical Sampling
If the aim of the research is to develop a theory, this type of sampling strategy is to be employed
Here extent of the basic population and its features are not known in advance
Repeated drawing of sampling elements with criteria to be defined again in each step
Sample size is not determined in advance
Sampling is finished when theoretical saturation has been reached

36. Categories of Research Design
Experimental:- Is there a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables?
Quasi-Experimental:- Is there evidence of a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables? (some ambiguity would persist)
Non-Experimental:- Is there a relationship between two variables? (no control for confounding)
Correlational:- Is there a statistical relation between two variables? (no explanation)
Descriptive:- What is the status of individual for a specific group of individuals?

37. Factorial Experimental Designs
Experiment is a study in which one or more independent variables are varied and change in the dependent variable is measured. Thus, It could be of 2X2 or of higher dimension.
Validity is checked by employing Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) technique. (Statistical software packages are available to assist this part)
Complete Randomisation, Randomised Blocks, Latin Squares & Graeco-Latin Squares are the common frameworks for designing experiments to eliminate bias.

38. Informal Experimental Designs
a) Before & after without control design:
Exp. Performance Treatment Performance
group before treatment given after treatment
(X) (Y)
Treatment effect = (Y) – (X)

39. Informal Experimental Designs
b) After-only with control design:
Exp Treatment Performance
group given after treatment (Y)
Control No Performance
group treatment without treatment (Z)
Treatment effect = (Y) – (Z)

40. Informal Experimental Designs
c) Before & after with control design:
Time Time 2
Exp Perf. before Treat Performance
group treat. (X) given after treatment (Y)
Control Perf. before Treat Performance
group treatment (A) given after treatment (Z)
Treatment effect = (Y- X) – (Z-A)

41. 2 X 2 Design : To test the effectiveness of token
gifts and follow up reminders alone and in combination
on the response rate in a mail survey.
No Gift
Token Gift
No Follow Up
30% (30/100)
45% (45/100)
37.5% (75/200)
Follow Up
50% (50/100)
60% (60/100)
55% (110/200)
40% (80/200)
52.5% (105/200)
Conclusions:
1. Improvement by follow up : 55% – 37.5 % = 17.5%
2. Improvement by token gift : 52.5% – 40 % = 12.5%
3. Maximum response rate by follow up & token gift (60%)

42. Some Experimental Designs
I C B A D
II A B D C
III B C D A
IV A D C B
D A C C
B D B A
D C B D
A B C A
Randomised Blocks
Complete Randomisation
B γ A β D δ C α
A δ B α C γ D β
D α C δ B β A γ
C β D γ A α B δ
D B C A
B D A C
C A D B
A C B D
Latin Square
Graeco-Latin Square

43. Elaborate Checking
Internal checking to safeguard against selecting wrong pattern as true
Avoiding faulty generalisation from single event or handful observations
Logical testing of arguments and examining the basic assumptions
Filling up information gaps
Checking for coherence (a causal relation among observations must be established)
Contd…

44. Elaborate Checking (2) Carrying out risk assessment
Breaking the creation to examine for any flaw in any of the components, side effects, difficulty in use, changing the environment for variable testing
Reviewing by experts
Testing through surveys, prototypes, and experimentation

45. Validity Threats
Research Bias: Data selection to fit the theory or preconceptions
Reactivity: Influence of researcher on setting of experiments
Checks:
Modus Operandi Approach [generating alternatives to eliminate]
Searching Negative Cases [rule out the possibilities]
Triangulation [supporting evidence from diverse sources]
Feedback [soliciting observations from experts]
Quasi-Statistics [some quantitative support]
Comparisons [comparing results from other studies]

46. Effective Research Design
Parsimony: causes advanced as explanations for phenomena be as far as simple as possible (Occam’s razor)
Unobtrusiveness: avoids obtrusive data collection
Sound Methodology: selects appropriate technique for analysis
Triangulation: provides for consistency checks

47. Research Study Design Steps:
Formulation of the research problem.
Decision about suitable population for the study and the sampling procedure.
Devising techniques for gathering data.
Determining the mode of administering the study.
Deciding the scheme for editing, coding and processing of data.
Indicating the procedures for data analysis.
Deciding about the mode of presentation of the research report.

48. Research Design Decisions
What is the study about?
What is the purpose of the study and its scope?
What are the types of data required?
Where can the needed data be found and their sources?
What will be the place or area of the study?
What periods of time will the study include?
What time is approximately required for the study?
Contd…

49. Research Design Decisions
What amount of material or number of cases will be needed?
What bases will be used for the selection of the material ?
What techniques of data gathering will be adopted?
What type of sampling, if required, will be used?
How will the data be analysed?
How best can all these questions be decided upon with minimum resources?

50. Check List Goal clarification Designing overall study & sampling plan
Time Cost
Goal clarification
Designing overall study & sampling plan
Selecting the sample
Designing the questionnaire & cover letter
Conducting pilot test
Revising the questionnaire
Printing final questionnaire
Locating the sample
Mailing & response collection
Attempts to get non-respondents
Editing and coding the data
Data entry and verification
Analysing the data
Interpreting & validating the analysed data
Preparing the report

51. Research design
should incorporate
sufficient control &
validity checks, but
also flexibility
to achieve the
objective precisely
Thank You