1. Urinary calculi

2. A common disease and 12% of men and 5% of women had experienced a renal stone by the age of 70 years.
A number of risk factors are known for renal stone formation, however, most calculi occur in healthy young men in whom investigations reveal no clear predisposing cause.

5. Clinical assessment Clinical features of urinary tract stones
Asymptomatic
Pain : renal colic
Haematuria
Urinary tract infection
Urinary tract obstruction

6. There is pallor, sweating and often vomiting.
When a stone becomes impacted in the ureter, an attack of renal colic develops.
The patient is suddenly aware of pain in the loin, which radiates round the flank to the groin and often into the testis or labium, in the sensory distribution of the first lumbar nerve. The pain steadily increases in intensity to reach a peak in a few minutes. The patient is restless, and generally tries unsuccessfully to obtain relief by changing position or pacing the room.
There is pallor, sweating and often vomiting.
Frequency, dysuria and haematuria may occur.
The intense pain usually subsides within 2 hours, but may continue unabated for hours or days.
Subsequent to an attack of renal colic there may be intermittent dull pain in the loin or back

7. Investigations
These should include a mid-stream specimen of urine for culture
measurement of serum urea, electrolyte, creatinine and calcium levels.

8. About 90% of stones are seen on a plain abdominal X-ray.
When the stone is in the ureter an IVU shows delayed excretion of contrast from the kidney and a dilated ureter down to the stone.
spiral CT gives the most accurate assessment and will identify non-opaque stones (e.g. uric acid).
Ultrasound may show dilatation of the ureter if the stone is obstructing urine flow.

9. Management
The immediate treatment of renal pain or renal colic is bed rest and application of warmth to the site of pain.
Renal colic often demands powerful analgesia, e.g. morphine, pethidine intramuscularly or diclofenac as a suppository.
Patients are advised to drink 2 litres per day.
Around 90% of stones less than 4 mm in diameter will pass spontaneously, but only 10% of stones of more than 6 mm will pass and these may require active intervention.
Immediate action is required if there is anuria or if severe infection occurs in the stagnant urine proximal to the stone (pyonephrosis).

10. most stones can now be fragmented by extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL), in which shock waves generated outside the body are focused to the stone, breaking it into small pieces which can pass easily down the ureter. This requires free drainage of the distal urinary tract.
Endoscopic surgery is often required for stones, but open surgery is now almost never needed except for large bladder stones.
All stones are potentially infected and surgery should be covered with appropriate antibiotics.

12. MEASURES TO PREVENT CALCIUM STONE FORMATION 1) Diet Fluid
At least 2 litres output per day (intake 3-4 litres)-check with 24-hr urine collections
Intake distributed throughout the day (especially before bed)
Sodium
Restrict intake
Protein
Moderate; not high
Calcium
Plenty in diet (because calcium forms an insoluble salt with dietary oxalate, lowering oxalate absorption and excretion)
Avoid supplements away from meals (increase calcium excretion without reducing oxalate excretion)
Oxalate
Avoid foods that are rich in oxalate

13. MEASURES TO PREVENT CALCIUM STONE FORMATION
2) Drugs
Thiazide diuretics
Reduce calcium excretion
Valuable in recurrent stone-formers and patients with hypercalciuria
Allopurinol
If urate excretion high
Avoid
Vitamin D supplements as they increase calcium absorption and excretion