1. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Getting a Behavior to Occur More Often with Positive Reinforcement Chapter 3

2. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Positive Reinforcement A positive reinforcer is an event that, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency (or likelihood of occurrence). The principle called positive reinforcement states that if, in a given situation, somebody does something that is followed immediately by a positive reinforcer, then that person is more likely to do the same thing again when he or she next encounters a similar situation. The terms positive reinforcement and reinforcement are often used interchangeably. Operant behaviors are those that operate on the environment to generate consequences, and are in turn influenced by those consequences; operant behaviors followed by reinforcers are strengthened.

3. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Positive Reinforcement (Example)

4. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Selecting the Behavior to Be Increased –The behaviors to be reinforced must first be identified specifically in order to: (a)help to ensure the reliability of detecting instances of the behavior and changes in its frequency, which is the yardstick by which one judges reinforcer effectiveness; (b)increase the likelihood that the reinforcement program will be applied consistently.

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6. Choosing Reinforcers (“Different Strokes for Different Folks”) –Most positive reinforcers can be classified under five somewhat overlapping headings: consumable (i.e. items that one can eat or drink) activity (i.e. opportunities to watch TV, look at a picture book, etc.) manipulative (i.e. opportunities to play with a favorite toy, color or paint, ride a bicycle, etc.) possessional (i.e. enjoy some other item that one can possess) social (i.e. affectionate pats and hugs, praise, nods, smiles, etc.) –The extrinsic–intrinsic distinction between reinforcers may not be valid

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9. Motivating Operations –Temporarily alter the effectiveness of a reinforcer, and alter the frequency of behavior reinforced by that reinforcer. –Deprivation vs. satiation Most reinforcers will not be effective unless the individual has been deprived of them for some period of time prior to their use (establishing operations vs. abolishing operations). –Motivational variable A variable that affects the likelihood and direction of behavior.

10. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Positive Reinforcement (cont.) Reinforcer Size –The size (or amount or magnitude) of a reinforcer is an important determinant of its effectiveness. Instructions: Make Use of Rules –Specific instructions will speed up the learning process for individuals who understand them. –Instructions may influence an individual to work for delayed reinforcement. –Adding instructions to reinforcement programs may help to teach individuals to follow instructions.

11. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Positive Reinforcement (cont.) Reinforcer Immediacy –For maximum effectiveness, a reinforcer should be given immediately after the desired response. –The distinction between direct- and indirect-acting effects of reinforcement has important implications for practitioners. –If you can’t present a reinforcer immediately following the desired behavior, then provide instructions concerning the delay of reinforcement.

12. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Example of Delayed Reinforcement

13. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Positive Reinforcement (cont.) Contingent versus Noncontingent Reinforcement –When a behavior must occur before a reinforcer will be presented, we say that the reinforcer is contingent on that behavior. –If a reinforcer is presented at a particular time, regardless of the preceding behavior, we say that the reinforcer is noncontingent.

14. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Positive Reinforcement (cont.) Weaning the Student from the Program and Changing to Natural Reinforcers –Unprogrammed reinforcers that occur in the normal course of everyday living are called natural reinforcers, and the settings in which they occur are called the natural environment. –The behavior modifier should always try to ensure that the behavior being established in a training program will be reinforced and maintained in the natural environment. –If a behavior that has been strengthened by reinforcement is no longer reinforced at least occasionally, then that behavior will return to its original level.

15. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Pitfalls of Positive Reinforcement How the Principle Can Work Against the Unwary –Those who are aware of the principle of positive reinforcement can use it to bring about desirable changes in behavior; the principle operates equally well for those who are not aware of it. Other Pitfalls –The tendency for novice behavior modifiers to assume that presenting reinforcers noncontingently will strengthen a specific behavior. –To mistakenly offer positive reinforcement as an overly simplistic explanation of a change in behavior.

16. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Guidelines for the Effective Application of Positive Reinforcement 1.Selecting the behavior to be increased. –The target behavior should be a specific behavior rather than a general category. Also, if possible, select a behavior that will come under the control of natural reinforcers after it has been increased in frequency. 2.Selecting the reinforcer. –Complete the reinforcer survey presented in Figure 3-3 and select strong reinforcers that are readily available. can be presented immediately following the desired behavior. can be used over and over again without causing rapid satiation. do not require a great deal of time to consume (if it takes a half- hour to consume the reinforcer, this minimizes the training time). –Use as many reinforcers as feasible, and, where appropriate, use a reinforcer tray or menu.

17. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Guidelines for the Effective Application of Positive Reinforcement (cont.) 3.Applying positive reinforcement. –Tell the individual about the plan before starting. –Reinforce immediately following the desired behavior. –Describe the desired behavior to the individual while the reinforcer is being given. –Use lots of praise and physical contact when dispensing reinforcers. 4.Weaning the student from the program. –If a behavior has been occurring at a desirable rate, you might try to gradually eliminate tangible reinforcers (such as treats and toys) and maintain the behavior with social reinforcement. –Look for reinforcers in the natural environment that might maintain the behavior once it has been increased in frequency. –To ensure that the behavior is being reinforced occasionally and that the desired frequency is being maintained, plan periodic assessments of the behavior after the program has terminated.

18. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Looking Ahead