1. Oliver John Rachel

2. Up to a third of CO2 in the atmosphere is absorbed by our oceans Global average seawater pH is around 8.1, down from 8.2 since industrialization A 0.1 pH decrease corresponds to a 30% increase in [H+] concentration while a 1 unit decrease results in a 900% increase in [H+] Things we should all remember from class… "Ocean Acidification." NOAA.gov. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Nov. 2014.

3. Matear, R. J., and A. Lenton. (2013) Quantifying the impact of ocean acidification on our future climate. Biogeosciences. 10.11: 3965-983. An Earth systems model was used to evaluate effects of OA on biogeochemical cycles and our future climate OA impact only has potential to lower atmospheric CO2 concentration by ~45ppm and temperature by only 0.25 K Ocean pH could fall as low as 7.8, resulting in a 100% increase in [H+] Will impact ability of organisms to calcify, reducing calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Less CaCO3 allows oceans to absorb more CO2, compounding the problem Will lower concentration of oxygen in water by ~2% Conclusion: consequences of OA will not be through its impact on climate change, but on how it impacts the flow of energy in marine ecosystems, which may significantly impact their productivity, composition and diversity Quantifying the impact of ocean acidification on our future climate

4. The process by which coral forms is complicated and is still not completely understood Heavily dependent on surrounding water conditions Coral polyps take in calcium and bicarbonate ions. The ions split into CO2 and hydroxide ions (OH-) CO2 is later used to help power photosynthesis Hydroxide interacts with protons (H+) in seawater to maintain stable pH! Alkalinity is important for coral growth!! Wijgerde, Tim. "How Coral Reefs Grow." CoralScience.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Nov. 2014.

5. As pH of water surrounding coral growth area falls, more carbonate ions get converted into bicarbonate ions. Then, carbonate ions from the coral skeleton get taken as replacements. Wijgerde, Tim. "How Coral Reefs Grow." CoralScience.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Nov. 2014.

6. Differential response of two Mediterranean cold-water coral species to ocean acidification Movilla J., Orejas C., Calvo E., Gori A., Lopez-Sanz A., Grinyo J., Dominguez-Carrio C., and Pelejero C. (2014) Differential Response of Two Mediterranean Cold-water Coral Species to Ocean Acidification. Coral Reefs 33: 675-86. 2 separate cold-water coral species were placed in aquariums, one with pH 8.1 water (control) and another with pH 7.8 water (predicted) After 314 days of observation, one species showed a 70% decrease in skeletal growth rate while the other only showed minor changes Conclusion Different coral species react to low pH differently; those with higher calcification rates are more susceptible to OA

7. Coral reef calcification and climate change: The effect of ocean warming Carricart-Ganivet, J.P. (2004) Sea surface temperature and the growth of the West Atlantic reef-building coral Montastraea annularis. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 302(2): 249-260. Used models to predict tropical coral growth rates, combining negative effects of increased ocean CO2 uptake with positive effects of increased ocean temperature Predicted that calcification rates could actually INCREASE by 35% over pre-industrial rates by 2100 Did not take into account consequences of coral bleaching or upper limits of temperature on coral

8. Water flow modulates the response of coral reef communities to ocean acidification Comeau S.,, Edmunds P.J.,, Lantz C.A. &, Carpenter R.C. (2013) Water flow modulates the response of coral reef communities to ocean acidification. Sci. Rep. 4, 6681; DOI:10.1038/srep06681. Examined the effects of water flow speed and increased CO2 on entire coral “communities” in both light and dark over 8 weeks Conclusion CO2 does greater harm to coral species in low flow conditions

9. Ocean Acidification Effects on Squid Skerry, B. "Photo Gallery: Squid." National Geographic. National Geographic Society.

10. Squid Larvae Hatch Rates Cohen, A., Kaplan, M., McCorkle, D., and Mooney, T. (2013) Adverse Effects of Ocean Acidification on Early Development of Squid. Web of Science. Public Library Science. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063714

11. Cohen, A., Kaplan, M., McCorkle, D., and Mooney, T. (2013) Adverse Effects of Ocean Acidification on Early Development of Squid. Web of Science. Public Library Science. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063714 Mantle Length Differences

12. Statolith Growth Cohen, A., Kaplan, M., McCorkle, D., and Mooney, T. (2013) Adverse Effects of Ocean Acidification on Early Development of Squid. Web of Science. Public Library Science. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063714

13. Cohen, A., Kaplan, M., McCorkle, D., and Mooney, T. (2013) Adverse Effects of Ocean Acidification on Early Development of Squid. Web of Science. Public Library Science. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063714 A Closer Look at CO2 Enhanced Statolith Development

14. …what does this mean? For squid and other marine species: – Squid are important predator AND prey; any change in their existence can offset the food chain/trophic levels – Might not be able to adapt quickly enough; either have abnormalities or not survive – Decreased ability to catch prey because of stunted statolith (won’t be able to balance correctly) and might solely become prey – Decreased metabolic rates For US humans: – Squid support a large portion of fisheries (3 million tons per year) world wide; will decrease sales, and in turn fish and sushi sellers – Tourism in coastal areas that thrive on fish and squid will decrease – More reliance on other fish species Cohen, A., Kaplan, M., McCorkle, D., and Mooney, T. (2013) Adverse Effects of Ocean Acidification on Early Development of Squid. Web of Science. Public Library Science. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063714

15. Ocean Acidification on Marine Calcifiers Calcium carbonate saturation levels in seawater is lower due to the acid breaking down the compound (Fabry et al, 2008). Calcifiers become less able to survive as the calcium carbonate needed for their skeletal systems is weakened. Fabry, Victoria J. "Marine Calcifers in a High-CO2 Ocean." Northeastern University. N.p., 23 May 2008. Web. 1 Dec. 2014. Andiman, Alexis, Kim Martineau, Louisa Mink, and Rosario Quiroz. "Calcifiers." The Other CO2 Problem. N.p., 25 Nov. 2009. Web. 3 Dec. 2014.

16. "Damage to Marine Ecosystems as CO2 Emissions Rise." Save Our Seas Foundation. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Dec. 2014.

17. Mediterranean Sea as a Future Model 2008 study suggests increased acidification will direct oceans away from highly calcium carbonate populated ecosystems. Scientists searched the regions of the mediterranean sea where submarine carbon dioxide vents bring the pH down to 7.8. Calcifiers like urchin, coral, and algae were rare on not found at all. Hall-Spencer, Jason M., Riccardo Rodolfo-Metalpa, Sophie Martin, Emma Ransome, Maoz Fine, Suzanne M. Turner, Sonia J. Rowley, Dario Tedesco, and Maria-Cristina Buia. "Volcanic Carbon Dioxide Vents Show Ecosystem Effects of Ocean Acidification." Nature International Weekly Journal of Science. N.p., 8 June 2008. Web. 2 Dec. 2014.

18. Acidification’s Effects on the Food Chain 2012 study predicted the effects of acidification on the nutritional values of calcifying organisms Algae was placed in models of high carbon dioxide concentrated ecosystems to simulate how they will be affected by increased acidity Results showed that the amount of fatty acids in the algae was decreased Bermúdez, Rafael, Helena Hauss, Ulf Riebesell, Dennis Rossoll, Kai G. Schulz, Ulrich Simmer, and Monika Winder. "Ocean Acidification-Induced Food Quality Deterioration Constrains Trophic Transfer." Plos One. N.p., 11 Apr. 2012. Web. 30 Nov. 2014.