1. Unit 7B: Cognition: Thinking, Problem Solving, Creativity, and Language

2. Thinking

3. Cognition = the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

4. Concepts a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. –Category hierarchies –PrototypePrototype

5. = a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).

6. Solving Problems Strategies Algorithms –Step-by-step Heuristic Insight

7. Algorithm = a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier – but also more error-prone – use of heuristics.

8. Heuristic = a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.

9. Insight = a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

10. Solving Problems Creativity Creativity Strernberg’s five components –Expertise –Imaginative thinking skills –A venturesome personality –Intrinsic motivation –A creative environment

11. Creativity = the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

12. Solving Problems Obstacles to Problem Solving Confirmation bias Fixation –Mental setMental set –Functional fixednessFunctional fixedness

13. Confirmation Bias = a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

14. Solving Problems Obstacles to Problem Solving Confirmation bias Fixation –Mental setMental set –Functional fixednessFunctional fixedness

15. Fixation = the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set.

16. Mental Set = a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

17. Functional Fixedness = the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.

18. Making Decisions and Forming Judgments Using and Misusing Heuristics The Representative Heuristic

19. Representativeness Heuristic = judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

20. Making Decisions and Forming Judgments Using and Misusing Heuristics The Availability Heuristic

21. Availability Heuristic = estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

22. Making Decisions and Forming Judgments Overconfidence Overconfidence

23. = the tendency to be more confident that correct – to over-estimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

24. Making Decisions and Forming Judgments The Belief Perseverance Phenomenon Belief perseverance –Consider the opposite

25. Belief Perseverance = clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they are formed has been discredited.

26. Making Decisions and Forming Judgments The Perils and Powers of Intuition Intuition –Unconscious intuition

27. Intuition = an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

28. Making Decisions and Forming Judgments The Effects of Framing Framing –Framing experiments

29. Framing = the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

30. Language

31. Language Introduction Language

32. = our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

33. Language Structure Phonemes Phoneme –English about 40 phonemes –Learning another language’s phonemes

34. Phoneme = in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

35. Language Structure Morphemes Morpheme –Includes prefixes and suffixes

36. Morpheme = in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).

37. Language Structure Grammar Grammar –SemanticsSemantics –SyntaxSyntax

38. Semantics = the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning.

39. Syntax = the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.

40. Grammar = in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

41. Language Development When Do We Learn Language? Receptive language Productive language –Babbling stageBabbling stage –One-word stageOne-word stage –Two-word stageTwo-word stage –Telegraphic speechTelegraphic speech

42. Babbling Stage = beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

43. One-word Stage = the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

44. Two-word Stage = beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.

45. Telegraphic Speech = early speech state in which a child speaks like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly nouns and verbs.

46. Language Development When Do We Learn Language?

47. Language Development Explaining Language Development Skinner: Operant Learning –Learning principles Association Imitation Reinforcement

48. Language Development Explaining Language Development Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar –Language acquisition device –Universal grammar

49. Language Development Explaining Language Development Statistical Learning and Critical Periods –Statistical learning –Critical (sensitive) period

50. Thinking and Language

51. Language Influences Thinking Whorf’s linguistic determinismlinguistic determinism Bilingual advantage

52. Linguistic Determinism = Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think.