1. cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech1 Programming Techniques t.k.prasad@wright.edu http://www.knoesis.org/tkprasad/

2. Generalization/Abstraction Analogy: [a,b,c]  [f(a),f(b),f(c)] maplist(_,[],[]). maplist(P,[X|T],[NX|NT]) :- G =.. [P,X,NX], call(G), maplist(P,T,NT). (G  p(N,NX)) cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech2

3. Application transpose([],[]). transpose([[]|_],[]) :- !. transpose([R|Rs],[C|Cs]) :- maplist(first,[R|Rs],C), maplist(rest,[R|Rs],RC), transpose(RC,Cs). first([H|T],H). rest([H|T],T). /* Built-in maplist exists*/ cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech3

4. Enhancing Efficiency Interpreted vs Compiled code (order of magnitude improvement observed) Improving data structures and algorithm 8-Queens problem, Heuristic Search, Quicksort, etc Tail-recursive optimization Memoization storing partial results / caching intermediate results Difference lists DCGs cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech4

5. (cont’d) Prolog implementations that index on the first argument of a predicate improve determinism. Cuts and other meta-programming primitives can be used to program in new search strategies for controlled backtracking. cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech5

6. Optimizing Fibonacci Number Computation fib(0,0) :- !. fib(1,1) :- !. fib(N,F) :- N1 is N - 1, N2 is N1 -1, fib(N1,F1), fib(N2,F2), F is F1 + F2. ?-fib(5,F). Complexity: Exponential time algorithm cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech6

7. Fibonacci Call Tree with Parameter Value cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech7

8. (cont’d) f(0,F,_,F). f(1,_,F,F). f(N,Fpp,Fp,F) :- N >= 2, N1 is N – 1, F0 is Fp + Fpp, f(N1,Fp,F0,F). fib(N,F) :- f(N,0,1,F). ?-fib(5,F). Complexity: Linear time algorithm (tail-recursive version) cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech8

9. Last call optimization Activation record normally stores a continuation and a backtrack point, to be used when the goal succeeds or fails respectively. p :- q, r. p :- s. –LCO avoids allocating a new activation record for s, but rather reuses one for p. cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech9

10. Caching intermediate results Instead of explicitly modifying the code to improve performance, XSB uses tabling to store intermediate results and avoids recomputing earlier goals. Ironically, double-recursive (exponential- time) Fibonacci Number definition serves as a benchmark for testing efficiency of implementation of recursion! cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech10

11. Different Lists : Motivation cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech11 STACKpushpop Array-Impl.O(1) Linked-list Impl.O(1) QUEUEenqueuedequeue Circular Buffer or Linked List Impl. (front& rear pointer) O(1) Linked-List Impl. (front but no rear pointer) O(1) O(n)

12. (cont’d) In Prolog, pointers implementing list structures are not available for inspection/manipulation. Hence, complexity of enqueue (resp. dequeue) is O(1) and that of dequeue (resp. enqueue) is O(n). enqueue(Q,E,[E|Q]). dequeue([E],E). dequeue([_|F|T],E) :- dequeue([F|T],E). Difference list is a techqniue to get O(1) complexity for both the operations. cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech12

13. Difference Lists : Details Represent list L as a difference of two lists L1 and L2 –E.g., consider L = [a,b,c] and various L1-L2 combinations given below. cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech13 L1L2 [a,b,c][] [a,b,c,d,e][d,e] [a,b,c|T]T [a,b,c,d|T][d|T]

14. Benefit L = L1 – L2 Both enqueue and dequeue are O(1) operations obtained by cons-ing an element to L1 and L2 respectively. enqueue(L1-L2, E, [E|L1] – L2). dequeue(L1-L2, E, L1 – [E|L2]). E.g., enqueue([a]-[], b, [b,a] – []). dequeue([a]-[], a, [a]–[a]). cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech14

15. Append using Difference Lists append(X-Y, Y-Z, X-Z). Ordinary append complexity = O(length of first list) Difference list append complexity = O(1) cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech15 X Y Z X-Y Y-Z Y Z Z X-Z

16. (cont’d) append(X-Y, Y-Z, X-Z). ?-append([a,b,c|L]-L, [1,2|M]-M, N). X=[a,b,c|L] Y = L Y = [1,2|M] Z = M X – Z = N N= [a,b,c|[1,2|Z]]-Z N= [a,b,c,1,2|Z]]-Z cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech16

17. Restriction append(X-Y, Y-Z, X-Z). ?-append([a,b,c|[d]]-[d], [1,2]-[], N). Fails because the second lists must be a variable. Incomplete data structure is a necessity. cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech17

18. Interpreter-based Semantics vs Declarative Semantics IS is an over-specification but may provide an efficient implementation. DS specifies correctness criteria and may permit further optimization. Overall research goal: Characterize classes of programs for which the declarative and the procedural semantics coincide. cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech18

19. Relational Algebra (Operations on Relations) Select, Project, Join, Union, Intersection, difference –Transitive closure cannot be expressed in terms of these operations. A query language is relationally complete if it can perform the above operations. cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech19

20. Deductive Databases : Datalog (Function-free/Finite Domain Prolog) Datalog + Negation is relationally complete. What effects query evaluation efficiency? –Characteristics of data (cyclic vs acyclic) –Ordering of rules and body literals –Search strategy (top-down vs bottom-up) Tuple-at-a-time vs Set-at-a-time cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech20

21. Middle Ground: Top-down vs Bottom-up Improve efficiency by caching. (cf. tabling) Remove Incompleteness by loop detection. Focused search. Propagate bindings in the query. (cf. Magic sets) cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech21 In general, the efficiency of query evaluation can be improved by sequencing goals on the basis of their bindings and dependencies among rule literals.

22. Heuristics for rearranging rules and body literals for efficiency Order body literals by decreasing values of failure probability Order rules by decreasing values of success probability Order body literals to maximize dependencies among adjacent literals. Metric for comparison – e.g., extent of base relation graphs inspected cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech22

23. Backtracking Chronological Dependency directed –focus on the reason for backtracking ans(X,Y) :- p(X), q(Y), r(X). p(1). p(2). p(3). q(1). q(2). q(3). r(3). cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech23

24. Data Dependency Graph cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech24 ans(X,Y) :- p(X), r(X), q(Y), If r(X) fails, then backtrack to p(X) rather than q(Y).

25. Indexing Prolog indexes on –predicate symbol and arity –principal functor of first argument (cf. constant -> hash) Randomly accessed rule groups p(a) :- … p(22) :- … p(f(X)) :- … p([]) :- …, p([a]) :- …, … cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech25

26. Robert Kowalski Algorithm = Logic + Control Niklaus Wirth Programs = Data Structures + Algorithms cs7120 (Prasad)L26-ProgTech26