1. Plate tectonics Geology 103

2. Why does the Earth have mountains and basins? Basic question asked by many: erosion is evident everywhere, so why haven’t all mountains eroded and filled in all basins? Alfred Wegener proposed continental drift in 1912.

3. Evidence for continental drift Continental “fit” – South America and Africa separated by the Atlantic Similar rocks separated by the Atlantic Similar climate markers (glacial striations) separated by the Atlantic Similar fossils separated by the Atlantic

4. Unifying theory of geology Extension of Wegener’s continental drift theory from the early 20th century Needed not only information about rocks but also breakthroughs in geochronology and geophysics Continental drift failed to provide a sufficient mechanism (tides and wind were not enough); plate tectonics does

5. Mechanism(s) of tectonics First, and foremost, the second law of thermodynamics says that heat is transferred from hot bodies to cold bodies (e.g., Earth’s core to space)

6. Mechanism(s) of tectonics Heat transfers in three ways: radiation, conduction and convection. It is the last of these that occurs within the mantle. Convection (and internal heating) seems to keep the mantle hot and plastic enough for plates to sink into it -- may not be enough to move plates

8. Mechanism(s) of tectonics Slab pull seems to be the major “drag”, ridge push and plate sliding are more minor forces

9. Tenets of plate tectonics Plates exist

10. Plate materials Remember: lithosphere, not crust Continental plates are made of granite Oceanic plates are made of basalt Granite and basalt are types of igneous rocks

11. Tenets of plate tectonics Plates move

12. Hotspots Focused convection plumes from mid- mantle

13. Hotspots show plate movement

14. Problems with motion Hotspots may not be fixed in position and they are certainly not permanent GPS does a better job of measuring annual rates, though over the short-term only

15. Tenets of plate tectonics Plate boundaries are areas of geological phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain building

16. Plate interactions Convergent

17. Types of convergent boundaries Continental plate - continental plate convergence results in non-volcanic mountain ranges

19. Types of convergent boundaries Oceanic plate - oceanic plate convergence results in a volcanic oceanic island arc Subduction occurs

21. Types of convergent boundaries Continental plate - oceanic plate convergence results in a volcanic continental arc

23. Plate interactions Divergent

24. Types of divergent boundaries Between two oceanic plates

26. Sea floor spreading Oceanic divergent boundaries provided evidence for plate tectonics. Paleomagnetism (the measurement of “stripes” of different polarity minerals in ocean floor rock of different ages) allowed Hess and others (1950s) to postulate the movement of the sea floor itself.

27. Types of divergent boundaries Between two continental plates

29. Plate interactions Transform

31. Tenets of plate tectonics Plate interiors are geologically quiet, except for hotspots

33. Synthesis All three types Nearby!

34. Grander synthesis: the Wilson (supercontinent) cycle J. Tuzo Wilson (1970) suggested that plate tectonics allow supercontinents to rift apart and reform over and over on a roughly half billion year cycle Evidence for this: evidence of pre- Pangea supercontinents, such as Rodinia

40. “Classic” plate tectonic settings and mountain building Divergent boundary – fault-block mountains (horsts and grabens)

41. Steens Mountain, Oregon

42. “Classic” plate tectonic settings and mountain building Divergent boundary – fault-block mountains (horsts and grabens) Collision (convergent) boundary – “fold- and-thrust” belts

43. Development of a fold and thrust belt mountain range Note the asymmetry as one part of the fold overrides the other part. The low- angle reverse fault is called a thrust fault.

44. Wyoming foreland – Rockies

45. “Classic” plate tectonic settings and mountain building Divergent boundary – fault-block mountains (horsts and grabens) Collision (convergent) boundary – “fold- and-thrust” belts Subduction (convergent) boundary – volcanic arc mountains

46. Cascades volcanic arc

47. “Classic” plate tectonic settings and mountain building Divergent boundary – fault-block mountains (horsts and grabens) Collision (convergent) boundary – “fold- and-thrust” belts Subduction (convergent) boundary – volcanic arc mountains Transform boundaries are not associated with mountain-building

48. Origin of the Transverse Ranges “Transpressional”

49. Origin of the Sierra Nevada Relict subduction zone