1. The Nature and Method of science

2. Three approaches to defining science What is science? This may be answered through three means 1- etymologically 2. identification of the disciplines categorised as science 3. Employing the definition of some scholars

3. Etymological definition Etymologically science is from the Latin word “scientia,” meaning “to know.”

4. Implication of the etymological definition The implication of the etymological definition of science is that all disciplines can be referred to as science. To qualify as science in this general sense all that is required of a discipline is that it must be a body of systematised knowledge. Secondly, knowledge claims must be made in accordance with socially and academically approved methods of doing so. So, whether a discipline is under the pure sciences, or the social science, law, arts and humanities, pharmacy it discipline will qualify as science.

5. Conventional understanding of what science is Conventionally, however, what is called science are the disciplines categorised under natural or pure science. These are: physics, biology, chemistry

6. The five categories of science When distributed under categories, however, one may identify about five categories of science. These are: 1. Natural/Pure Science 2. Social Science 3. Applied Science 4. Medical and Health Science 5. Formal Science

7. Social Science Academic disciplines in this area of study include: psychology, economics, political science, Geography, sociology. These disciplines have as their goal the employment of the methods of pure science in order to discover behavioural patterns of social beings and social institutions.

8. Natural/Pure Science The discipline under the branch of science referred to as natural or pure science are those academic disciplines that have as their objects of study natural phenomena and which carries out the study of these phenomena with the methodology of observation, experimentation and generalisation with the aim of discovering their properties and patterns of behaviour. Examples: chemistry, physics, biology

9. Applied Science Under this category of science are those disciplineswhere discoveries in science are further employed for making inventions that bring some form of comfort to man. They may also be referred to as technological science. Example: Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Petroleum Engineering

10. Medical and Health Sciences This branch of science has subsumed under it disciplines like:medicine, nursing, physiology, pharmacy, veterinary medicine among others It deals with those disciplines that employ the principles of science in finding solutions to the various health challenges confronting human beings and animals

11. Formal Science Formal science is systematic and deductive in nature and refers to sciences with contents, arguments and procedures that conform to certain formal rules. The existence of this form of science predates the existence of the other genres of sciences. Mathematics texts date back in history to around 1800BC in Mesopotamia. It had as its original purpose quantifying goods, slaves and other possessions. Mathematics, which includes algebra, geometry, trigonometry, arithmetic; logic; theoretical physics; theoretical computer science and statistics are disciplines under formal science.

12. Irrespective of the field/branch of science, however, there is something in common to all This is the discovery of the manifold properties on one and only one nature. In other words, science aims at finding facts (understanding how nature works) with which nature can be understood and with which predictions can be made.

13. Distinction between science and pseudo-science Pseudo-science is that which claims to be science but which is not. It is false- science; it is science that is not genuine. According to Jack Aigbodioh, The expression “pseudo-science” is used here to mean all knowledge claims, beliefs, and practices which are not arrived at by the scientific method. For example, the expression signifies the beliefs and practices in mysticism, occultism, prophetism, miracles, witchcraft, and divine revelation through dreams, visions and the like. In a nutshell, pseudo-science embraces metaphysics, religious doctrines, superstitions and ideology.

14. Four features of science specificity, objectivity, public, impersonal Science is specific Science is objective Science is public Science is impersonal

15. Science is specific Science is specific means that science deals with certain known precise elements of our world Specificity entails two things First, it entails that science deals with “particular, observable, or identifiable objects of this terrestrial world, rather than with some abstract general ideas or beings in our world or in some ethereal world.” In this regard, science is specific because each scientific discipline deals with distinct particular natural objects that we can recon with our five senses. The second reason why science is said to be specific is that science provides us with information about our world as it actually is

16. Science is objective Objectivity entails allowing the facts to speak for themselves and ensuring that one’s findings are not influenced by one’s personal feelings or opinions. Science is said to be objective because laws, theories, and discoveries in science are made impartially, neutrally or with unbiased minds by scientists.

17. Science is public This character of science indicates that the outcome and method of science are not esoteric in nature by being open to a few individuals. Rather, they are accessible to the members of the general public so interested for scrutiny and verification.

18. Science is impersonal This means that science is pursued dispassionately, free from eccentric decisions and without prejudice or value judgement.

19. The methodology of Science Crucial to any discipline is the methodology of making enquiries in the discipline. One important way through which a scientist is able to fulfil its aspirations of making scientific discovery is through the method that scientists employ in pursuing their disciplines

20. Brief definition The scientific method has been defined as “a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge” Every scientific method must be empirical in nature and measureable

21. OBSERVATION THROUGH INDUCTION The very first step in any scientific endeavour is observation. When Isaac Newton discovered the Law of Gravity, it was after series of observations that he was able to come to the conclusion that any two bodies in the universe attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

22. Observation is expected to be done through the use of the method of induction. Induction has to do with deriving general laws from particular cases. It has to do with moving from particular instances to general rule. According to I.E. Ukpokolo, “the principle of induction can be rendered thus: If a large number of “A’s” have been observed under a wide variety of conditions, and if all those observed “A’s” without exception have possessed the property “B”, then all “A’s” possess the property “B”

23. Formulation of Hypotheses Formulation of hypotheses involves making conjectures or rational guesses. When an observation is made questions are raised as to why this is so. Scientists formulates hypothesis/hypotheses about why they think things are the way they are. In other words, hypotheses are formulated to guess why things are the way they are. After being subjected to experimentation, hypotheses may be refined, altered, expanded or rejected

24. Experimentation In order to test for the validity of the hypotheses set up by the scientist, experiments are carried out. Experiment enables the scientist to gather empirical data which will enable the scientist to confirm or reject his hypotheses. When one talks of experience in science, one is referring to a combination of observation and experimentation. It is through both that one acquires knowledge in science.

25. DATA GATHERING AND RECORDING Careful recording of the data by the scientist is important for accuracy

26. Replication and Peer Review It is important that every process in an experimentation can be repeated over and over again otherwise it is safe to conclude that something is deficient in the original result

27. Development of a theory When one’s result(s) has been substantiated over and over again one may then move to the level of generating a theory. A theory provides explanation and generalisation for one’s observation over a period of time. Scientific theory may, however, be defined as "a well- substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment.” Scientific theories are universal in nature. They capture what the situation will be for all occurrences of the phenomenon in question

28. Explanation and Prediction Ultimately, the purpose of science is to reveal the nature of reality so that we can be able to relate with it in the future. So, every theory or law in science aims at helping us to explain nature and natural occurrences and also help with predicting what will happen if certain causes are observed or created. Generation of laws and theories enable us to understand what has been observed and predict what may be observed