1. Data Structure Lecture 1

2.  The Logical Organization of Data is called data structures  organize data  more efficient programs.  More powerful computers  more complex applications.  More complex applications demand more calculations. Data Structures

3. Organizing Data  Any organization for a collection of records that can be searched, processed in any order, or modified.  The choice of data structure and algorithm can make the difference between a program running in a few seconds or many days.

4. Efficiency  A solution is said to be efficient if it solves the problem within its resource constraints. Space Time  The cost of a solution is the amount of resources that the solution consumes.

5. Templates C++ supports code reuse in different ways. The template feature in C++ provides way to reuse source code.

6. Function Templates Suppose you want to write a function that returns the absolute value of a number. Ordinarily, this function would be written for a particular data type: int abs(int n) // absolute value of ints { return (n<0) ? -n : n; // if n is negative, return –n } Here the function is defined to take an argument of type int and to return a value of this same type.

7. Function Templates But now suppose you want to find the absolute value of a type long. You need to write a completely new function: long abs(long n) // absolute value of longs { return (n<0) ? -n : n; } And again, for type float: float abs(float n) // absolute value of floats { return (n<0) ? -n : n; }

8. Function Templates The body of the function is the same in each case, but they must be separate functions because they handle variables of different types. It’s true that in C++ these functions can all be overloaded to have the same name, but you must nevertheless write a separate definition for each one. Rewriting the same function body over and over for different types Wastes time as well as space in the listing.

9. Function Templates Also, if you find you’ve made an error in one such function, you’ll need to remember to correct it in each function body. Failing to do this correctly is a good way to introduce inconsistencies into your program. It would be nice if there were a way to write such a function just once and have it work for many different data types. This is exactly what Function templates do for you.

10. Function Templates #include template // function template T abs(T n) { return (n < 0) ? -n : n; } void main() {int int1 = 5; int int2 = -6; long lon1 = 70000; long lon2 = -80000; double dub1 = 9.95; double dub2 = -10.15; // calls instantiate functions cout << "abs(" << int1 << ")=" << abs(int1) << endl; // abs(int) cout << "abs(" << int2 << ")=" << abs(int2) << endl; // abs(int) cout << "abs(" << lon1 << ")=" << abs(lon1) << endl; // abs(long) cout << "abs(" << lon2 << ")=" << abs(lon2) << endl; // abs(long) cout << "abs(" << dub1 << ")=" << abs(dub1) << endl; // abs(double) cout << "abs(" << dub2 << ")=" << abs(dub2) << endl; // abs(double) } OUTPUT: abs(5)=5 abs(-6)=6 abs(70000)=70000 abs(-80000)=80000 abs(9.95)=9.95 abs(-10.15)=10.15

11. Function Templates The key innovation in function templates is to represent the data type used by the function not as a specific type such as int, but by a name that can stand for any type. In the function template above, this name is T. The template keyword signals the compiler that I’m about to define a Function template. The keyword class, within the angle brackets, might just as well be called type. As you’ve seen, you can define your own data types using classes, so there’s really no distinction between types and classes. The variable following the keyword class (T in this example) is called the template argument.

12. Function Templates What does the compiler do when it sees the template keyword and the Function definition that follows it? The function template itself doesn’t cause the compiler to generate any code. It can’t generate code because it doesn’t know yet what data type the function will be working with. It simply remembers the template for possible future use. Code generation doesn’t take place until the function is actually called (invoked) by a statement within the program. This happens in expressions such as abs(int1) in the Statement cout << "abs(" << int << ")=" << abs(int1);

13. Function Templates When the compiler sees a function call, it knows that the type to use is int, because that’s the type of the argument int1. So it generates a specific version of the abs() function for type int, substituting int wherever it sees the name T in the function template. This is called instantiating the function template, and each instantiated version of the function is called a template function.

14. Function Templates Notice that the amount of RAM used by the program is the same whether we use the template approach or write three separate functions. What we’ve saved is having to type three separate functions into the source file. This makes the listing shorter and easier to understand. Also, if we want to change the way the function works, I need to make the change in only one place in the listing instead of three.

15. Function Templates with Multiple Arguments Let’s look at another example of a function template. This one takes Three arguments: two template arguments and one basic type. The purpose of this function is to search an array for a specific value. The function returns the array index for that value if it finds it, or -1 if it can’t find it. The arguments are a pointer to the array, the value to search for, and the size of the array.

16. // function returns index number of item, or -1 if not found template template int find(const atype* array, atype value, int size) { for(int j=0; j<size; j++) if(array[ j ]==value) return j; return -1; } char chrArr[ ] = {'a', 'c', 'f', 's', 'u', 'z'}; // array char ch = 'f'; // value to find int intArr[ ] = {1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13}; int in = 6; double dubArr[ ] = {1.0, 3.0, 5.0, 9.0, 11.0, 13.0}; double db = 4.0; Function Templates with Multiple Arguments

17. int main() { cout << "\n 'f' in chrArray: index=" << find(chrArr, ch, 6); cout << "\n 6 in intArray: index=" << find(intArr, in, 6); cout << "\n 4 in dubArray: index=" << find(dubArr, db, 6); return 0; } Here, the name of the template argument is atype. The compiler generates three versions of the function, one for each type used to call it. OUTPUT: 'f' in chrArray: index=2 6 in intArray: index=-1 4 in dubArray: index=-1

18. Template Arguments Must Match When a template function is invoked, all instances of the same template argument must be of the same type. For example, in find(), if the array name is of type int, the value to search for must also be of type int. You can’t say int intarray[ ] = {1, 3, 5, 7}; // int array float f1 = 5.0; // float value int value = find(intarray, f1, 4); // error Because the compiler expects all instances of atype to be the same type. find(int*, int, int); // It can generate a function find(int*, float, int); // It can’t generate a function Because the first and second arguments must be the same type.

19. Linear Data Structures There are two ways of storing data structures in the computer’s memory. The first of these storage-allocation methods, which takes advantage of the one-dimensional property of the computer’s memory, is called sequential allocation. The second allocation method, which is based on the storage of the address or location of each element in the list, is known as linked allocation.

20. Stack A stack is a special case of a list. Rather than being allowed to insert a new item into the list at any place, additions to a stack are restricted to one end identified as the top of the stack. Deletions from the stack are also restricted to the top of the stack. Usually, only the item at the top of the stack is accessible to someone using the stack ADT. A stack is often referred to as a FILO (First In Last Out) or LIFO (Last In First Out) list. The stack only allows addition and removal from the top so the order of removal is the opposite to that of insertion.

21. Stack A stack is a list with the restriction that Inserts and Removes can be performed in only one position, namely the end of the list, called the top. Fundamental operations on a stack are Push - equivalent to an insert Pop - removes the most recently inserted element Pop from an empty stack is generally considered an error in the stack ADT. Running out of space when performing a push is an implementation error but not an ADT error.

22. The Stack (Common Examples) Plates on a cafeteria serving line. This arrangement of trays is supported by a spring so that a person desiring a tray finds that only one is available at the surface of the tray counter. Top tray of pile Stacked trays Spring

23. The Stack (Common Examples) Railway Shunting System Suppose that we have four railway cars (DCBA) sitting on the left-hand (input) track, as shown in the fig. We are required to rearrange these cars so that their order is (ACDB) that of the right-hand (output) track in the fig. We will restrict our shunting system so that it typifies a stack. Therefore, once a railway car has left the left-hand (input) track for the stack, it cannot return. Likewise, once a railway car has left the stack for the right hand (output) track, it cannot return to the stack. Before After Stack Input

24. The Stack (Common Examples) Railway Shunting System Clearly, at any given time, the only car that can move onto the stack is the one at the front of the input stream. The only car that can move to the output stream is the one at the top of the stack. Before After Stack Input

25. The Stack (Common Examples) Railway Shunting System Operation InputStackOutput InitialDCBA Push(A)DCBA Push(B)DCB A Pop()DCAB Push( C)DCB A Push(D)DB C A Pop()CDB A Pop()ACDB Before After Stack Input

26. The Stack (Common Examples) A list of recently visited URLs for a web browser’s “Back” and “Forward” buttons. The “undo” mechanisms in word processors.

27. The Stack Assume an initially empty stack and following sequence of insertions and deletions:

28. Stack The five common operations which are associated with a stack are: Initialize: Initializes stack; that is, prepare it for use as a stack. Push: Inserts an element on top of stack and returns the new stack. Pop: Removes the top element from the stack and return the updated stack. IsEmpty: Returns “true” as the function result if stack contains no element, or otherwise returns “false”. TopValue: returns the top element of stack as the function result.

29. Stack (stack.h) #include const int MAX = 100; class Stack { private: int data[MAX]; // stack: array of any type int top; // number of top of stack public: Stack(); // constructor void push(Type); // put number on stack int pop(); // take number off stack bool isEmpty();//checks if stack is empty or not int topValue();//gives top value of stack };

30. Stack (stack.h) Stack::Stack() { top = -1; } // Push a value onto the stack void Stack::push(int item) { if (top == MAX-1) cerr << "Stack Full!\n"; else data[++top] = item; }

31. Stack (stack.h) // Pop a value fromthe stack int Stack::pop() { if (top == -1) { cerr << "Stack Empty!\n"; return 0; } else return data[top--]; }

32. Stack (stack.h) // Check whether the stack is empty bool Stack::isEmpty() { if (top == -1) return true; else return false; } // Provide the top value of the stack Type Stack::topValue() { return data[top]; }

33. Stack (driver.cpp) #include #include"stack.h" void main() { // s1 is object of class Stack Stack s1; s1.push(11); s1.push(22); s1.push(33); cout << "1: " << s1.pop() << endl; cout << "2: " << s1.pop() << endl; while (!s1.isEmpty()) {cout <<"from loop: " << s1.pop() <<endl;} Output 1: 33 2: 22 from loop: 11

34. The template concept can be applied to classes as well as to functions. Class templates are generally used for data storage (container) classes. Stacks and linked lists, are examples of data storage classes. The Stack class in the program that is presented below, could store data only of type int: Class Templates

35. class Stack { int st[MAX]; // array of ints int top; // index number of top of stack public: Stack(); // constructor void push(int var); // takes int as argument int pop(); // returns int value }; If I wanted to store data of type long in a stack, I would need to define a completely new class: class LongStack { long st[MAX]; // array of longs int top; // index number of top of stack public: LongStack(); // constructor void push(long var); // takes long as argument long pop(); // returns long value };

36. Class Templates Solution with a class template: template class Stack{ enum {MAX=100}; Type st[MAX]; // stack: array of any type int top; // number of top of stack public: Stack(){top = 0;} // constructor void push(Type ); // put number on stack Type pop(); // take number off stack }; template void Stack ::push(Type var) // put number on stack { if(top > MAX-1) // if stack full, cout<< "Stack is full!"; st[top++] = var; }

37. Class Templates template Type Stack ::pop() // take number off stack { if(top <= 0) // if stack empty, cout<< "Stack is empty!"; return st[--top]; }

38. Class Templates int main() { // s1 is object of class Stack Stack s1; // push 2 floats, pop 2 floats s1.push(1111.1); s1.push(2222.2); cout << "1: " << s1.pop() << endl; cout << "2: " << s1.pop() << endl;

39. Class Templates // s2 is object of class Stack Stack s2; // push 2 longs, pop 2 longs s2.push(123123123L); s2.push(234234234L); cout << "1: " << s2.pop() << endl; cout << "2: " << s2.pop() << endl; return 0; } // End of program

40. Class Templates with an int as template template class Stack{ Type st[Size]; // stack: array of any type int top; // number of top of stack public: Stack(){top = 0;} // constructor void push(Type ); // put number on stack Type pop(); // take number off stack }; template void Stack ::push(Type var) // put number on stack { if(top > Size-1) // if stack full, cout<< "Stack is full!"; st[top++] = var; }

41. Class Templates with an int as template template Type Stack ::pop() // take number off stack { if(top <= 0) // if stack empty, cout<< "Stack is empty!"; return st[--top]; }

42. Class Templates with an int as template int main() { // s2 is object of class Stack and of Size 10 Stack si; Stack sf; // push 2 longs, pop 2 longs si.push(123123123L); si.push(234234234L); cout << "1: " << si.pop() << endl; cout << "2: " << si.pop() << endl; // push 2 longs, pop 2 longs sf.push(8.91); si.push(100.2345); cout << "1: " << sf.pop() << endl; cout << "2: " << sf.pop() << endl; return 0; } // End of program