1. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Cognition and Language Chapter 7

2. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Building Blocks of Thought Cognition – the process of how we acquire and use information (thinking). Language: A flexible system of symbols that enables us to communicate our ideas, thoughts, and feelings. Nonhumans communicate primarily though signs. Human language is semantic, or meaningful. Language, images, and concepts are the main building blocks of thought.

3. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Structure of Language Phonemes - Basic sounds of language; there are about 45 phonemes in English and as many as 85 phonemes in other languages. Phonemes are combined to form words. Morphemes - smallest units of meaning in a language. (words, prefixes). They can be whole words or parts of words (for example: red, how, now (whole words) –ed, pre-, -ing (prefixes and suffixes). Grammar - Rules for structuring sentences and their meaning. Grammar is comprised of two major parts: Syntax - is the system of rules that govern how we combine words to form meaningful phrases and sentences. Semantics – the criteria for assigning meaning to the morphemes in a language.

4. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Structure of Language Surface structure – particular words and phrases chosen to make up a sentence. Deep structure – the underlying meaning of a sentence. For example, the same deep structure can be conveyed by different surface structures: The ocean is unusually calm tonight. Tonight the ocean is particularly calm. Compared to most nights, tonight the ocean is calm.

5. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Building Blocks of Thought Images – are nonverbal mental representations of sensory experiences. We all use imagery to think about and solve problems. Concepts - Mental categories for classifying people, objects, or experiences. Prototype - Mental model containing the most typical features of a concept. **Language, images, and concepts are the building blocks for thought.

6. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Language and Cognition Linguistic determinism Idea that patterns of thinking are determined by the specific language one speaks. Research only mildly supports the idea. **Many researchers believe that language influences thought but doesn’t restrict thought, as others believe. **Experience and thought influences language.

7. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Culture and Cognition All known cultures use categories to form concepts. Culture has an effect on: What information is included in a category How categories are shaped by experience How people think.

8. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Nonhuman Thought and Language Animal cognition Only recently have psychologists developed techniques for learning how other animals use their brains. Animals can form concepts. Apes have demonstrated sophisticated problem-solving skills. Chimpanzees and orangutans show signs of self-awareness (meaning that they know or are aware of what they know).

9. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Nonhuman Thought and Language The question of language Signs – messages (vocalizations, sounds) animals use to communicate their current state. Chimpanzees have been taught to use American Sign Language. Chimpanzees have been observed using telegraphic speech (two-word combinations). Some chimps have learned to use keyboard symbols and sign language to communicate even without formal training. Apes typically only reach the linguistic level of a 2 to 2 ½ year old.

10. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Problem Solving Steps Problem representation - Interpreting or defining the problem. Some develop what is called a “conceptual block” where they see only one way to solve a problem, but can’t find a solution using that method. Decide what category a problem belongs to. Select a solution strategy (trial and error, step-by- step, etc.). Evaluate your progress toward goal.

11. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Possible Solution Strategies

12. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Possible Solution Strategies Trial and error - Works best with limited number of choices. Information retrieval - Retrieve from memory information about how such a problem has been solved in the past. Algorithms - Step-by-step methods that guarantees a solution. Math problems are an example of the type best solved using an algorithm. Heuristics - Rules of thumb that may help simplify a problem, but do not guarantee a solution.

13. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Heuristic Methods (rules of thumb) Hill climbing - Move progressively closer to goal without moving backward. Subgoals - Break large problem into smaller, more manageable ones, each of which is easier to solve than the whole problem. Means-end analysis - Aims to reduce the discrepancy between the current situation and the desired goal at a number of intermediate points. (It combines hill climbing with subgoals with the exception that you can move backward in order to reach the goal.) Working backward - Work backward from the desired goal to the existing condition.

14. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Obstacles to Solving Problems Motivation - Desire to solve a problem. Mental sets - Tendency to perceive and approach problems in certain ways. Functional fixedness - Tendency to see only a limited number of uses for an object.

15. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Creative Problem Solving Brainstorming Produces many ideas Very popular in business Ideas are not judged when generated The creative process People often become more creative when exposed to creative peers. Creativity also varies. People are more creative when posed with a creative problem.

16. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Becoming a More Skillful Problem Solver 1. Eliminate poor choices – when we are sure of what won’t work, use the process of elimination. List all possible solutions, then discard the ones that take you in the wrong direction. 2. Visualize a solution – it is sometimes easier to solve a problem when you visualize it – either draw it or visualize it mentally. 3. Develop expertise – people get stumped because they lack the knowledge. 4. Think flexibly – it will be helpful to be more flexible and creative when approaching a problem. Be open to suggestions of others; listen to how they would solve a problem.

17. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Decision Making Decision making is a special case of problem solving in which possible solutions or choices are already known. Logical decision making Compensatory model Rational decision-making model in which choices are systematically evaluated on various criteria; pros and cons are weighted. Example: buying a car Good when issues are well-defined

18. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Decision-Making Heuristics Heuristic processes are used when decisions involve a high degree of ambiguity. Representativeness heuristic – a new situation is judged on the basis of its resemblance to a stereotypical model. Availability heuristic - Decision is based on information that is most easily retrieved from memory, even if incomplete. Confirmation bias - Tendency to notice evidence that supports our beliefs and to ignore evidence that contradicts them.

19. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Framing Framing - how information is presented (or framed) can have an effect on the outcome of decision-making. Research has demonstrated that framing can have very dramatic effects on decision- making.

20. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Decisions Under Pressure When decisions are required quickly, experience plays a key role. With increased pressure in an emergency situation, decision making often deteriorates and can end in panic.

21. Psychology: An Introduction Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto © 2005 Prentice Hall Explaining Our Decisions Hindsight bias - Tendency to view the outcomes of decisions as inevitable and predictable after we know the outcome. Psychologists have viewed hindsight bias as a cognitive flaw that restores our faith in our own judgment. Researchers in Berlin argues that hindsight is useful because it “corrects” memory to replace misinformation. Counterfactual thinking - Thinking about alternative realities and things that never happened. Often takes the form of “If only…” constructions dealing with causes and consequences.