1. Chromosomal Mutations Entire chromosomes extra or missing Pieces of chromosome missing or moved onto a different chromosome. Identified by Karyotypes

2. Non-disjunction …….. how chromosomes go missing Non = not Dis = undo Junction= joining So non-disjunction is a failure to undo the joining of either: a) homologous chromosomes or b) sister chromatids

3. Non-disjunction of homologous chomosomes

4. Non-disjunction of sister chromatids

5. nondisjunction is the leading cause of pregnancy loss and birth defects. pregnancy loss 90% of chromosome 21 nondisjunction are due to maternal meiotic errors homologous chromosomes are arrested in prophase I for 10 to 50 years.

6. Older moms have higher risk

7. Autosomal non-disjunction Too many or too few autosomes (C 1-22) Nearly always fatal (miscarriages) 3 Exceptions 1) Trisomy 18 – Edwards syndrome 2) Trisomy 13 - Patau syndrome 3) Trisomy 21 – Down ’ s syndrome

8. Trisomy 18 – Edwards syndrome 3 copies of chromosome 18 Half of infants with this condition do not survive beyond the first week of life. Small head (microcephaly)microcephaly Some children have survived to the teenage years, but with serious medical and developmental problems.

9. Trisomy 13 – Patau syndrome More than 80% of children with trisomy 13 die in the first year. Small head (microcephaly)microcephaly

10. Trisomy 21- Down Syndrome most common cause of human birth defectsbirth defects Down syndrome symptoms vary from person to person and can range from mild to severe Most are cognitively impaired Adults may live semi-independently

11. Sex Chromosome Non-disjuction At least one X chromosome is needed to live!! Females who are XXX are fine Males who are Xyy are fine y alone will not survive X alone gives Turner syndrome Xxy gives Kleinfelter ’ s syndrome

12. Turner Syndrome XO Girls with 1) short stature 2) poorly developed ovaries Treat with 1) growth hormones 2) female hormones like estrogen

13. Kleinfelter ’ s syndrome Men with 1) low testosterone levels 2) infertility Treated with hormone replacement therapy XXy

14. Why can we survive extra X or y? Dosage Compensation Theory : & both ♀ & ♂ receive the same dose of X In ♀ one X Chromosome is inactivated Inactivated X condenses into a Barr body 75% of genes inactive

15. Mechanism of X inactivation In each embryonic cell the 2 X C pair up Then one of them activates its XIST gene XIST gene products (RNA) wrap up & inactivate that X C Which X is inactivated is random in each cell Occurs in morula stage of Embryo (ball of 2-16 cells)

16. Somatic tissues are a mosaic Patches of cells have different X C inactivated

17. Calico Cats & Sweat glands