1. Accelerating the Process of Vocabulary Learning
Dr. Andreea Cervatiuc
Faculty of Education
University of British Columbia

2. 1. Why is vocabulary important?
Vocabulary knowledge is the main predictor of success in reading comprehension.
Reading comprehension is the most important predictor of academic achievement.
Academic achievement is the most important predictor of professional success.

3. 2. How much vocabulary does an English language learner need to learn?
It depends on the purpose for learning English:
For travelling purposes: words.
For academic success at the graduate level: native-like or close-to-native vocabulary size.

4. 3. How many words do native speakers of English know?
The average receptive vocabulary size of university-educated native speakers of English varies between 17,000 and 20,000 word families (Goulden, Nation, & Read, 1990; Zechmeister, Chronis, Cull, D'Anna and Healy, 1995; Nation and Waring, 1997)
English-speaking children know about 5,000 word families by the the age of 8 and add about 1,000 word families a year.
According to Goulden, Nation, & Read (1990), the average receptive vocabulary size of college graduates is about 17,200 word families.
According to Zechmeister, Chronis, Cull, D'Anna and Healy (1995), the average receptive vocabulary size of college graduates is about 17,000 word families. (The vocabulary size of first year students is about 12,000 word families).
According to Nation and Waring (1997), the average receptive vocabulary size of university graduates is about 20,000 word families.

5. 4. How many word families are there in English?
The Webster 3rd New International Dictionary has a vocabulary of around 114,000 word families, excluding proper names.

6. 5. Can Adult Non-native English Speakers Acquire a Receptive Vocabulary Size Comparable to That of Native Speakers?
Comparison between Cervatiuc's findings (2008, 2009) and those of Goulden, Nation, and Read (1990)
Cervatiuc's Study (2009)
Sample: 20 highly proficient non-native English speakers
Goulden, Nation, and Read's Study (1990)
Sample: 20 university-educated native English speakers
Receptive English Vocabulary Size Average
16,512 base words
17,200 base words
Receptive English Vocabulary Size Range
13, ,000 base words
13, ,700 base words
An average size of 17,000 word families suggests that the "learning burden" of the task associated with direct English vocabulary teaching to non-native speakers is not as daunting as once believed. Exceptional adult second language learners do achieve vocabulary sizes that are like those of educated native speakers. A
The participants in Cervatiuc's study were 20 adult independent immigrants, who arrived in Canada after the age of 18 and who managed to re-access the professions they had in their home countries. The group average age upon arrival was years and the group average length of residence in Canada years. Cervatiuc (2009) used the same instrument to assess receptive vocabulary size as Goulden, Nation, and Read (1990), namely the Webster Third Vocabulary Size Test.

7. A Strategic Approach to Vocabulary Learning and Teaching
Not All the Words Are Equally Important!
It is important to focus on the right words.
Linguists divided words into 4 categories:
High-Frequency Words
Academic Words
Technical Words
Low-Frequency Words

8. 1. High Frequency Words (HFW)
A relatively small group of words (2,000 word families), which are very important because they occur very frequently in any text and provide a lot of text coverage (80% of the words in an academic text).
2. Academic Word List (AWL)
A small group of words (570 word families), which are also very important because they occur frequently in academic texts. The AWL provides about 9% text coverage.

9. 3. Technical Words 4. Low Frequency Words
Words specific to various disciplines/subject matters such as: mathematics, biology, geography, etc. It is estimated that the number of technical words of a specific discipline consists of at least 1,000 word families. Technical words provide about 5% text coverage in academic texts.
4. Low Frequency Words
A very large number of words (over 110,000 word families), which occur very infrequently and cover only a small percentage of the words in an academic text (about 6%).

10. (Based on how frequently they occur in texts)
Types of Words
How Large is This Group of Words?
Text Coverage
in Academic Texts)
How Should Teachers and Learners deal with These Words?
1. High Frequency Words
2,000 word families
80%
A lot of time and attention in the form of direct teaching and vocabulary learning activities.
2. Academic Word List
570 word families 9%
3. Technical Words
1,000 word families per field/subject matter 5%
4. Low Frequency Words
Over 110,000 word families 6%
(Based on how frequently they occur in texts) T

11. VOCABULARY LISTS
Cobb’s Compleat Lexical Tutor is a vocabulary website, which is very useful for teachers of ELLs and ELLs, because it offers some tools that can accelerate vocabulary learning:
1. Word Frequency Lists
2. A Vocabulary Profiler

12. First Important Distinction
What Does it Mean to Know a Word?
First Important Distinction
Receptive vocabulary knowledge is the ability to perceive a word while listening or reading and to retrieve its meaning.
Productive vocabulary knowledge is the ability to use a word in speaking or writing.
As a rule of thumb, the receptive vocabulary size is at least twice the size of the productive vocabulary.

13. Second Important Distinction
What Does it Mean to Know a Word?
Second Important Distinction
Breadth of vocabulary knowledge refers to vocabulary size.
Depth of vocabulary knowledge refers to quality of vocabulary knowledge.

14. Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge
Precision of Word Meaning: an elaborate and specific knowledge of the meaning of a word (Paribakht and Wesche, 1993: The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale)
Word Network Knowledge: knowing how to link a word to other words (Read, 1993: The Word Associate Test)
Comprehensive Word Knowledge: knowledge of the semantic, orthographic, phonological, morphological, syntactic, collocational, and pragmatic features of a word (Nation, 2001: Schema of Vocabulary Depth)
Read (2004) discusses 3 approaches to conceptualizing depth of vocabulary knowledge:
Precision of Word Meaning: an elaborate and specific knowledge of the meaning of a word (Paribakht and Wesch , 1993: The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale)
200
Comprehensive Word Knowledge: knowledge of the semantic, orthographic, phonological, morphological, syntactic, collocational, and pragmatic features of a word (Nation, 2001: Schema of Vocabulary Depth)
Word Network Knowledge: The incorporation of a word into the mental lexicon and linking it to other words (Read, 1993 – The Word Associate Test)

15. Comprehensive Word Knowledge
(Based on Nation, 2001, p. 27)
Form
Spoken
Receptive
Being able to recognize the word “underdeveloped” when it is heard.
Productive
Being able to pronounce the word “underdeveloped” correctly.
Written
Being able to recognize the word “underdeveloped” in reading.
Being able to write the word “underdeveloped” with correct spelling.
Word Parts
Being able to recognize parts such as “under”, “develop”, and “ed”.
Being able to construct it out of its parts: “under”, “develop”, and “ed”.

16. Meaning
Association between Form and Meaning
Receptive
Knowing the meaning of “underdeveloped”:
not fully grown;
without means for economic growth;
a photograph lacking contrast.
Productive
Knowing that the meaning of “not fully grown” can be conveyed by using the word “underdeveloped“.
Concept and Referents
Understanding the meaning of “underdeveloped” in a context:
“There are very few buildings in underdeveloped rural areas.”
Being able to produce the word “underdeveloped” with different meanings:
“That photograph was not developed properly.”
“This dog is underdeveloped compared to others his age.”
Associations
Recognizing related/associated words such as “developed”and “overdeveloped” when listening or reading:
Being able to use related words such as “developed”and “overdeveloped” in speaking and writing.

17. Use
Grammatical Functions
Receptive
Being able to recognize correct grammatical use in a sentence.
“More funds will be allocated for the underdeveloped areas.”
Productive
Being able to use it correctly in a sentence.
Collocations
Being able to recognize typical collocations”
“underdeveloped countries”
“underdeveloped territories”
Being able to produce typical collocations”
Constrains on use and
subtle distinctions
“Developing” is more acceptable than “underdeveloped” – a slightly negative connotation.

18. What Does it Mean to Know a Word?
Partial knowledge seems to be the norm in L1 as well as in L2.
Comprehensive knowledge of a word involves receptive and productive knowledge of its form, meaning, and use. From a testing perspective, Nation’s (2001) schema of vocabulary depth is very hard to implement.
However, Nation’s schema of vocabulary depth is useful for second language teachers. It should be used as a checklist to decide which aspects of word knowledge to focus on for instruction and classroom assessment purposes.

19. The Process of Vocabulary Learning
Vocabulary learning in a L2 is a complex phenomenon that does not occur in a linear fashion.
Nation (2001) proposes a three-stage model that encompasses ‘noticing’, ‘retrieval’, and ‘generation’.

20. The Process of Vocabulary Learning
Stage 1: Noticing
It occurs ‘when learners give attention to a language item as a part of the language rather than as part of the message.’
Types of noticing:
Negotiation
Definition
Translation
Negotiation occurs when learners infer the meaning of a word and discuss it with other learners or the teacher.
Short definitions are an effective way of noticing words, while long definitions tend to be confusing and may obstruct noticing.
L1 translation of new lexical items is an effective way of introducing the meaning of a new word.
Negotiated words are more likely to be remembered than non-negotiated words (75% vs. 57%).

21. The Process of Vocabulary Learning
Stage 2: Retrieval
It can be receptive, recalling the meaning of a form when it is perceived in listening or reading; and productive, communicating the meaning in speaking or writing.
In order to strengthen the long term retention of a word, it needs to be retrieved from the memory 5-7 times.
Implications: provide learners with sufficient vocabulary recycling: meaningful repetition(activities and exercises using the target words).
The lower the proficiency level, the more exposures with the same word are necessary.
The number of repetitions varies greatly depending on proficiency level and learner type.
Teachers need to provide vocabulary recycling (activities that prompt learners to use the new words several times in different ways)

22. The Process of Vocabulary Learning
Stage 3: Generation
Using the word in a manner that differs from the textual input or linguistic context which led to learning the word in the first place.
Generation occurs in various degrees through metaphorical extension, inflection, collocations, and grammatical contexts.
Highly generative and creative uses of words are more conducive to lexical learning (Hall, 1992).

23. What Can Teachers Do to Accelerate ELLs’ Vocabulary Acquisition Rate?
Familiarize themselves with theory and research findings related to vocabulary learning and teaching.
Directly teach some vocabulary.
Plan opportunities for vocabulary learning.
Teach their students to be strategic.
Assess vocabulary knowledge.

24. Vocabulary Learning Stage Examples of Learning Activities
Activities for Each of the Three Stages of the Vocabulary Learning Process
Vocabulary Learning Stage
Examples of Learning Activities
Noticing
Definitions
Context examples
Negotiation
Translations
Retrieval
Find antonyms, synonyms, and classify words
Retell the spoken or written input
Cloze exercises
Match words with definitions
Crossword puzzles
Generation
New sentences
Essays
Role plays

25. What Can Teachers Do to Accelerate ELLs’ Vocabulary Acquisition Rate?
Design a vocabulary learning program consisting of four balanced strands:
Meaning-focused input activities
Meaning-focused output activities
Language-focused learning activities
Fluency development activities.

26. 1. Meaning-Focused Input Activities
Learners focus on understanding and enjoying the material they read or listen to.
There should not be more than one unknown word in 50.
Examples of meaning-focused input activities:
Extensive reading for pleasure
Listening to stories
Listening to lectures

27. 2. Meaning-Focused Output Activities
Learners enrich and consolidate their knowledge of vocabulary through speaking and writing.
Examples of meaning-focused output activities:
Giving prepared talks
Conversations
Role-playing
Journal writing.

28. 3. Language-Focused Learning Activities
Learners study new words or the teacher explains new words and gives training in vocabulary learning strategies.
Examples of language-focused learning activities:
Intensive reading
Doing vocabulary exercises.
Examples of learning strategies:
Dictionary use
Guessing word meanings from the context
Using word parts.

29. 4. Fluency Development Activities
Learners get more proficient at using the vocabulary they already know.
Examples of fluency activities:
Speed reading of easy material.
Repeated reading
Ten-minute writing on a familiar topic.

30. Practical Applications
1. Balancing the Four Strands: Talk to the person sitting next to you and give examples of activities for each strand:
Meaning-Focused Input Activities
Meaning-Focused Output Activities
Language Focused-Learning
Fluency Development

31. Practical Applications Vocabulary Learning Stage
2. Providing Enough Vocabulary Recycling: Talk to the person sitting next to you and give examples of learning activities for each vocabulary learning stage
Vocabulary Learning Stage
Learning Activities
Noticing
- Definitions
Retrieval
- Cloze exercises
Generation
- New sentences

32. References
Cervatiuc, A. (Jan. 2008). ESL vocabulary acquisition: Target and approach. The Internet TESL Journal XIV (1), p
Cervatiuc, A. (2009). Successful Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Germany, Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller.
Cobb, T. (2007). The Compleat Lexical Tutor.
Goulden, R., Nation P, & Read J. (1990). How large can a receptive vocabulary be? Applied Linguistics, 11(4), p
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
Nation, I. S. P. (2008). Teaching Vocabulary: Strategies and Techniques. Boston: Heinle Cengage Learning. 

33. References
Nation, P & Waring, R. (1997). Vocabulary size, text coverage, and word lists. In Schmitt N, & McCarthy, M. (Eds). Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition, Pedagogy. New York: Cambridge University Press, p  
Paribakht, T. S. & Wesche, M. B. (1993). Reading comprehension and second language development in a comprehension-based ESL program. TESL Canada Journal 11(1), p
Read, J. (1993). The development of a new measure of L2 vocabulary knowledge. Language Testing, 10, p
Zechmeister, E.B., Chronis, A.M., Cull, W.L., D'Anna, C.A. & Healy, N.A. (1995). Growth of a functionally important lexicon. Journal of Reading Behavior 27(2), p