1. Deaf Americans’ Linguistic and Cultural Access to Justice in the United States Judith A. Schechter Lexington School for the Deaf

2. Some Information About Deaf People in the United States

3. Some Information about Deaf People in the United States  Approximately 90% of profoundly, congenitally deaf children are born to hearing parents. Source: Mitchell RE, Karchmer MA. Chasing the mythical ten percent: Parental hearing status of deaf and hard of hearing students in the United States. Sign Language Studies. 2004;4(2):138-163.

4. Some information about deaf people in the United States  Approximately 90% of profoundly, congenitally deaf children are born to hearing parents.  Of this group of hearing parents, only about 10% will become proficient enough in sign language to communicate with their signing children. Source:

5. A Brief History of Deaf Education in the United States The American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia /commons/1/17/American_School_for_t he_Deaf,_August_10,_2008.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia /commons/1/17/American_School_for_t he_Deaf,_August_10,_2008.jpg

6. Deaf Education Begins in Enlightenment Europe Abbé Charles Michel de l’Épée Photo source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/t humb/a/ab/Charles- Michel_de_L'%C3%89p%C3%A9e_(2).jpg/620px- Charles-Michel_de_L'%C3%89p%C3%A9e_(2).jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/t humb/a/ab/Charles- Michel_de_L'%C3%89p%C3%A9e_(2).jpg/620px- Charles-Michel_de_L'%C3%89p%C3%A9e_(2).jpg

7. Deaf Education Begins in Enlightenment Europe Institut National de Jeunes Sourds, Paris Photo source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:P1010937 _Paris_V_Rue_St-Jacques_n%C2%B0252bis- 254_Institut_nat._des_jeunes_sourds_reductwk.JPG

8. Thomas Gallaudet Travels to France to Learn About Deaf Education Photo source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/b/b1/Thomas_Gallaudet_1822- 1902_-_Brady-Handy.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/b/b1/Thomas_Gallaudet_1822- 1902_-_Brady-Handy.jpg

9. Gallaudet and Deaf Teacher Laurent Clerc Return to the U.S. to Establish the First American School for the Deaf Laurent Clerc Photo source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: LaurentClerc_reduit2.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: LaurentClerc_reduit2.jpg

10. The American School for the Deaf, Formerly Known as the Connecticut Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb Photo source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US- CT(1891)_p125_HARTFORD,_DEAF_AND_DUMB_ASYLU M.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US- CT(1891)_p125_HARTFORD,_DEAF_AND_DUMB_ASYLU M.jpg

11. The Rise of “Oralism,” or the Use of Spoken Language in the Education of the Deaf Alexander Graham Bell, Inventor, Speech Teacher, Eugenicist, and Proponent of Oral Deaf Education Photo source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/comm ons/2/21/Sm_alexander_graham_bell_12.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/comm ons/2/21/Sm_alexander_graham_bell_12.jpg

12. The Clarke School for the Deaf in Northampton, Massachusetts Photo source: http://www.masslive.com/news/index.ssf/2 011/12/northamptons_round_hill_propos.ht ml http://www.masslive.com/news/index.ssf/2 011/12/northamptons_round_hill_propos.ht ml The old Clarke campus, formerly known as the Round Hill School

13. The Congress of Milan (1880)  In 1880, however, at a convention of primarily hearing teachers of the Deaf in Milan, Italy, European teachers of the Deaf approved a resolution that effectively banished sign instruction from Deaf classrooms throughout Europe in favor of oralism.

14. The Congress of Milan (1880)  In 1880, however, at a convention of primarily hearing teachers of the Deaf in Milan, Italy, European teachers of the Deaf approved a resolution that effectively banished sign instruction from Deaf classrooms throughout Europe in favor of oralism.  By the early 1900’s, sign or manual programs for the Deaf had all but disappeared from the U.S. Signing programs for the Deaf would not start to reappear again until the 1960’s.

15. Education Programs for the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing in New York State

16.  Section 4201 Schools

17. Education Programs for the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing in New York State  Section 4201 Schools  Example: Lexington School for the Deaf, East Elmhurst, NY Photo source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo ns/f/ff/Lexington_School_for_the_Deaf_jeh.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo ns/f/ff/Lexington_School_for_the_Deaf_jeh.jpg

18. Education Programs for the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing in New York State  On the local level, New York City’s Department of Education maintains a variety of programs for Deaf and HOH students. At the “less restrictive” environment end of the range, the Department has programs for students mainstreamed in general education classes. In these classes, Deaf and HOH students may receive what are called “related services”—the services of interpreters, speech teachers, and/or teachers of the Deaf and HOH who either pull students from class to provide extra support or “push in” to classes to do the same.

19. Education Programs for the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing in New York State  On the local level, New York City’s Department of Education maintains a variety of programs for Deaf and HOH students. At the “less restrictive” environment end of the range, the Department has programs for students mainstreamed in general education classes. In these classes, Deaf and HOH students may receive what are called “related services”—the services of interpreters, speech teachers, and/or teachers of the Deaf and HOH who either pull students from class to provide extra support or “push in” to classes to do the same.  Deaf and HOH students may also be placed into special education classes where they receive related services.

20. Education Programs for the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing in New York State  On the local level, New York City’s Department of Education maintains a variety of programs for Deaf and HOH students. At the “less restrictive” environment end of the range, the Department has programs for students mainstreamed in general education classes. In these classes, Deaf and HOH students may receive what are called “related services”—the services of interpreters, speech teachers, and/or teachers of the Deaf and HOH who either pull students from class to provide extra support or “push in” to classes to do the same.  Deaf and HOH students may also be placed into special education classes where they receive related services.  On the more restrictive end of the range of academic placements, the Department also offers Deaf and HOH students self-contained classes designed around the students’ special needs. Children in these classes also typically receive related services. These classes typically have a small class size ratio.

21. Education Programs for the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing in New York State Local high schools that have self-contained classes for the deaf include:

22. Education Programs for the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing in New York State Local high schools that have self-contained classes for the deaf include: Murry Bergtraum HS, Manhattan Source: https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=is ch&q=murry%20bergtraum&tbs=sur:fm#imgrc=NdC3L 7ed2sHuoM%3A https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=is ch&q=murry%20bergtraum&tbs=sur:fm#imgrc=NdC3L 7ed2sHuoM%3A

23. Education Programs for the Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing in New York State Local high schools that have self-contained classes for the deaf include: Murry Bergtraum HS, ManhattanTruman HS, the Bronx Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com mons/a/ae/Sun_reflects_off_the_front_of_Tru man_High_School.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com mons/a/ae/Sun_reflects_off_the_front_of_Tru man_High_School.jpg Source: https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=is ch&q=murry%20bergtraum&tbs=sur:fm#imgrc=NdC3L 7ed2sHuoM%3A https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=is ch&q=murry%20bergtraum&tbs=sur:fm#imgrc=NdC3L 7ed2sHuoM%3A

24. School Districts other than the NYC Department of Education...

25.  Offer a range of programming to their Deaf and HOH students based on the kinds of settings just summarized

26. Which is better: oral or manual deaf education?

27. Photo source http://sites.utexas.edu/litblog/http://sites.utexas.edu/litblog/ This student is learning the sound of "O" at the former New York Institution of the Improved Instruction of Deaf Mutes, now the Lexington School for the Deaf. Source: Gallaudet University Archives at https://my.gallaudet.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/Deaf%20Eyes%20Exhibit/Language- 02struggle.htmhttps://my.gallaudet.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/Deaf%20Eyes%20Exhibit/Language- 02struggle.htm

28. The answer is...

29.  Education of the Deaf and HOH is a failed enterprise in the United States regardless of the methodology.

30. Here’s the data:

31.  Approximately 30% of Deaf adults are functionally illiterate. This means that these individuals read at or below the 2.9 grade level (this means second grade, ninth month). Many of these individuals are semilingual, as well, meaning that they also have limited proficiency in ASL.

32. Here’s the data:  Approximately 30% of Deaf adults are functionally illiterate. This means that these individuals read at or below the 2.9 grade level (this means second grade, ninth month). Many of these individuals are semilingual, as well, meaning that they also have limited proficiency in ASL.  Approximately 10% of Deaf adults read at the 10 th grade level or above.