1. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS Principles and Paradigms Second Edition ANDREW S. TANENBAUM MAARTEN VAN STEEN Chapter 5 Naming

2. Overview Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Names are used to refer to entities, locations, resources and more. We need to resolve a name to the entity it refers to. The naming system may be itself be implemented in a distributed fashion.  How to organize and implementation of human friendly names. E.g. files systems, World Wide Web  Locating entities in a way that is independent of current location from their names  Resolving names by means of entity attributes

3. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Names, Identifiers, And Addresses Properties of a true identifier: An identifier refers to at most one entity. Each entity is referred to by at most one identifier. An identifier always refers to the same entity

4. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Names, Identifiers, And Addresses  A name in a distributed system is a string of bits or characters used to refer to an entity. Entity is something that is operated on using some access point. The name of the access point is called an address.  Entities: hosts, printers, disks, files, processes, users, mailboxes, web pages, graphical windows, messages, network connections, etc.  An entity may change its access point over course of time. Thus the address cannot be treated as the name of the entity. Moreover an entity may have more than one access point. Location independent name is separate from the address of the access point.  An identifier is an unambiguous reference to an entity.  How to generate a Universally Unique Identifier?

5. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Locating Mobile Entities Traditional naming systems are primarily used for naming entities that have a fixed location. They are not well-suited for supporting name-to-address mappings that change regularly. Suppose an entity moves to a new address. How do we handle this?  Record the new address in the original DNS database. Problem: If entity moves again, the update becomes a remote operation, possibly taking long time to complete.  Record the new name, creating a symbolic link. Problem: Each lookup now takes two operations. Also each move of the entity adds another level of lookup. Solution: Separate naming from locating entities by introducing identifiers. An entity has a unique identifier that never changes.

6. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Broadcasting/Multicasting Consider a LAN that offers efficient broadcasting facility. A message containing the identity of the entity is broadcast to each machine. Only the machines that can offer access to that entity send a reply containing the address of the access point. E.g. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)‏ used on Internet. A more efficient approach for larger networks is multicasting, by which only a restricted group of machines receive the request.

7. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Forwarding Pointers (1)‏ Figure 5-1. The principle of forwarding pointers using (client stub, server stub) pairs.

8. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Forwarding Pointers (2)‏ Figure 5-2. Redirecting a forwarding pointer by storing a shortcut in a client stub.

9. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Forwarding Pointers (3)‏ Figure 5-2. Redirecting a forwarding pointer by storing a shortcut in a client stub.

10. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Home-Based Approaches Figure 5-3. The principle of Mobile IP.

11. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Distributed Hash Tables General Mechanism Figure 5-4. Resolving key 26 from node 1 and key 12 from node 28 in a Chord system.

12. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Hierarchical Approaches (1)‏ Figure 5-5. Hierarchical organization of a location service into domains, each having an associated directory node.

13. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Hierarchical Approaches (2)‏ Figure 5-6. An example of storing information of an entity having two addresses in different leaf domains.

14. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Hierarchical Approaches (3)‏ Figure 5-7. Looking up a location in a hierarchically organized location service.

15. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Hierarchical Approaches (4)‏ Figure 5-8. (a) An insert request is forwarded to the first node that knows about entity E.

16. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Hierarchical Approaches (5)‏ Figure 5-8. (b) A chain of forwarding pointers to the leaf node is created.

17. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Name Spaces (1)‏ Figure 5-9. A general naming graph with a single root node.

18. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Name Spaces (2)‏ Figure 5-10. The general organization of the UNIX file system implementation on a logical disk of contiguous disk blocks.

19. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Name Resolution The process of looking up a name is called name resolution. Given a path name, it should be possible to look up any information stored in the node referred to by that name. Knowing how and where to start name resolution is generally referred to as closure mechanism. Use of aliases: hard links and symbolic links. Distributed name spaces can be merged transparently using the concept of mount points. To mount a remote name space in a distributed system requires at least the following information.  Name of an access protocol  Name of the server  Name of the mounting point in the foreign name space

20. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Linking and Mounting (1)‏ Figure 5-11. The concept of a symbolic link explained in a naming graph.

21. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Linking and Mounting (2)‏ Information required to mount a foreign name space in a distributed system The name of an access protocol. The name of the server. The name of the mounting point in the foreign name space.

22. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Linking and Mounting (3)‏ Figure 5-12. Mounting remote name spaces through a specific access protocol.

23. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Name Space Distribution (1)‏ Figure 5-13. An example partitioning of the DNS name space, including Internet-accessible files, into three layers.

24. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Name Space Distribution (2)‏ Figure 5-14. A comparison between name servers for implementing nodes from a large-scale name space partitioned into a global layer, an administrational layer, and a managerial layer.

25. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Implementation of Name Resolution (1)‏ Figure 5-15. The principle of iterative name resolution.

26. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Implementation of Name Resolution (2)‏ Figure 5-16. The principle of recursive name resolution.

27. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Implementation of Name Resolution (3)‏ Figure 5-17. Recursive name resolution of. Name servers cache intermediate results for subsequent lookups.

28. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Example: The Domain Name System Figure 5-18. The comparison between recursive and iterative name resolution with respect to communication costs.

29. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 DNS (Domain Name Service)‏  Domain Name Space and Resource Records.  Name Servers are server programs which hold information about the domain tree's structure and set information.  Resolvers are programs that extract information from name servers in response to client requests. Resolvers must be able to access at least one name server and use that name server's information to answer a query directly, or pursue the query using referrals to other name servers. Look up RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 for more information. Used for mapping hostnames to IP addresses on the Internet. Uses an iterative lookup by default, with recursive lookup as an option. The three major components are:

30. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 DNS (Domain Name Service)‏ From the user's point of view, the domain system is accessed through a simple procedure or OS call to a local resolver. The domain space consists of a single tree and the user can request information from any section of the tree. From the resolver's point of view, the domain system is composed of an unknown number of name servers. Each name server has one or more pieces of the whole domain tree's data, but the resolver views each of these databases as essentially static. From a name server's point of view, the domain system consists of separate sets of local information called zones. The name server has local copies of some of the zones. The name server must periodically refresh its zones from master copies in local files or foreign name servers. The name server must concurrently process queries that arrive from resolvers.

31. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 The DNS Name Space Figure 5-19. The most important types of resource records forming the contents of nodes in the DNS name space.

32. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 DNS Implementation (1)‏ Figure 5-20. An excerpt from the DNS database for the zone cs.vu.nl.

33. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 DNS Implementation (2)‏ Figure 5-20. An excerpt from the DNS database for the zone cs.vu.nl.

34. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 DNS Implementation (3)‏ Figure 5-21. Part of the description for the vu.nl domain which contains the cs.vu.nl domain.

35. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Hierarchical Implementations: LDAP (1)‏ Figure 5-22. A simple example of an LDAP directory entry using LDAP naming conventions.

36. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Hierarchical Implementations: LDAP (2)‏ Figure 5-23. (a) Part of a directory information tree.

37. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Hierarchical Implementations: LDAP (3)‏ Figure 5-23. (b) Two directory entries having Host_Name as RDN.

38. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Mapping to Distributed Hash Tables (1)‏ Figure 5-24. (a) A general description of a resource. (b) Its representation as an AVTree.

39. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Mapping to Distributed Hash Tables (2)‏ Figure 5-25. (a) The resource description of a query. (b) Its representation as an AVTree.

40. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5 Semantic Overlay Networks Figure 5-26. Maintaining a semantic overlay through gossiping.