1. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Human Anatomy & Physiology SEVENTH EDITION Elaine N. Marieb Katja Hoehn PowerPoint ® Lecture Slides prepared by Vince Austin, Bluegrass Technical and Community College C H A P T E R 2 Chemistry Comes Alive P A R T A

2. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Matter  The “stuff” of the universe  Anything that has mass and takes up space  States of matter  Solid – has definite shape and volume  Liquid – has definite volume, changeable shape  Gas – has changeable shape and volume

3. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Energy  The capacity to do work (put matter into motion)  Types of energy  Kinetic – energy in action  Potential – energy of position; stored (inactive) energy PLAY Energy Concepts

4. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Forms of Energy  Chemical – stored in the bonds of chemical substances  Electrical – results from the movement of charged particles  Mechanical – directly involved in moving matter  Radiant or electromagnetic – energy traveling in waves (i.e., visible light, ultraviolet light, and X-rays)

5. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Energy Form Conversions  Energy is easily converted from one form to another  During conversion, some energy is “lost” as heat

6. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Composition of Matter  Elements – unique substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means  Atoms – more-or-less identical building blocks for each element  Atomic symbol – one- or two-letter chemical shorthand for each element

7. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Properties of Elements  Each element has unique physical and chemical properties  Physical properties – those detected with our senses  Chemical properties – pertain to the way atoms interact with one another

8. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Major Elements of the Human Body  Oxygen (O)  Carbon (C)  Hydrogen (H)  Nitrogen (N)

9. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lesser and Trace Elements of the Human Body  Lesser elements make up 3.9% of the body and include:  Calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl), magnesium (Mg), iodine (I), and iron (Fe)

10. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lesser and Trace Elements of the Human Body  Trace elements make up less than 0.01% of the body  They are required in minute amounts, and are found as part of enzymes

11. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Atomic Structure  The nucleus consists of neutrons and protons  Neutrons – have no charge and a mass of one atomic mass unit (amu)  Protons – have a positive charge and a mass of 1 amu  Electrons are found orbiting the nucleus  Electrons – have a negative charge and 1/2000 the mass of a proton (0 amu)

12. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Models of the Atom  Planetary Model – electrons move around the nucleus in fixed, circular orbits  Orbital Model – regions around the nucleus in which electrons are most likely to be found

13. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Models of the Atom Figure 2.1

14. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Identification of Elements  Atomic number – equal to the number of protons  Mass number – equal to the mass of the protons and neutrons  Atomic weight – average of the mass numbers of all isotopes

15. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Identification of Elements  Isotope – atoms with same number of protons but a different number of neutrons  Radioisotopes – atoms that undergo spontaneous decay called radioactivity

16. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Identification of Elements: Atomic Structure Figure 2.2

17. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Identification of Elements: Isotopes of Hydrogen Figure 2.3

18. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Molecules and Compounds  Molecule – two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds  Compound – two or more different kinds of atoms chemically bonded together

19. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Mixtures and Solutions  Mixtures – two or more components physically intermixed (not chemically bonded)  Solutions – homogeneous mixtures of components  Solvent – substance present in greatest amount  Solute – substance(s) present in smaller amounts

20. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concentration of Solutions  Percent, or parts per 100 parts  Molarity, or moles per liter (M)  A mole of an element or compound is equal to its atomic or molecular weight (sum of atomic weights) in grams

21. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Colloids and Suspensions  Colloids (emulsions) – heterogeneous mixtures whose solutes do not settle out  Suspensions – heterogeneous mixtures with visible solutes that tend to settle out

22. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Mixtures Compared with Compounds  No chemical bonding takes place in mixtures  Most mixtures can be separated by physical means  Mixtures can be heterogeneous or homogeneous  Compounds cannot be separated by physical means  All compounds are homogeneous

23. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chemical Bonds  Electron shells, or energy levels, surround the nucleus of an atom  Bonds are formed using the electrons in the outermost energy level  Valence shell – outermost energy level containing chemically active electrons  Octet rule – except for the first shell which is full with two electrons, atoms interact in a manner to have eight electrons in their valence shell

24. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chemically Inert Elements  Inert elements have their outermost energy level fully occupied by electrons Figure 2.4a

25. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chemically Reactive Elements  Reactive elements do not have their outermost energy level fully occupied by electrons Figure 2.4b

26. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Types of Chemical Bonds  Ionic  Covalent  Hydrogen

27. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ionic Bonds  Ions are charged atoms resulting from the gain or loss of electrons  Anions have gained one or more electrons  Cations have lost one or more electrons

28. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Formation of an Ionic Bond  Ionic bonds form between atoms by the transfer of one or more electrons  Ionic compounds form crystals instead of individual molecules  Example: NaCl (sodium chloride)

29. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Formation of an Ionic Bond Figure 2.5a

30. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Formation of an Ionic Bond Figure 2.5b

31. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Covalent Bonds  Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of two or more electrons  Electron sharing produces molecules

32. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Single Covalent Bonds Figure 2.7a

33. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Double Covalent Bonds Figure 2.7b

34. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Triple Covalent Bonds Figure 2.7c

35. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Polar and Nonpolar Molecules  Electrons shared equally between atoms produce nonpolar molecules  Unequal sharing of electrons produces polar molecules  Atoms with six or seven valence shell electrons are electronegative  Atoms with one or two valence shell electrons are electropositive

36. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Comparison of Ionic, Polar Covalent, and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds Figure 2.9

37. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hydrogen Bonds  Too weak to bind atoms together  Common in dipoles such as water  Responsible for surface tension in water  Important as intramolecular bonds, giving the molecule a three-dimensional shape PLAY Hydrogen Bonds

38. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hydrogen Bonds Figure 2.10a

39. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chemical Reactions  Occur when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken  Written in symbolic form using chemical equations  Chemical equations contain:  Number and type of reacting substances, and products produced  Relative amounts of reactants and products

40. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Examples of Chemical Reactions

41. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Patterns of Chemical Reactions  Combination reactions: Synthesis reactions which always involve bond formation A + B  AB

42. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Patterns of Chemical Reactions  Decomposition reactions: Molecules are broken down into smaller molecules AB  A + B

43. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Patterns of Chemical Reactions  Exchange reactions: Bonds are both made and broken AB + C  AC + B

44. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions  Reactants losing electrons are electron donors and are oxidized  Reactants taking up electrons are electron acceptors and become reduced

45. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Energy Flow in Chemical Reactions  Exergonic reactions – reactions that release energy  Endergonic reactions – reactions whose products contain more potential energy than did its reactants

46. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Reversibility in Chemical Reactions  All chemical reactions are theoretically reversible A + B  AB AB  A + B  If neither a forward nor reverse reaction is dominant, chemical equilibrium is reached

47. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Factors Influencing Rate of Chemical Reactions  Temperature – chemical reactions proceed quicker at higher temperatures  Particle size – the smaller the particle the faster the chemical reaction  Concentration – higher reacting particle concentrations produce faster reactions

48. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Factors Influencing Rate of Chemical Reactions  Catalysts – increase the rate of a reaction without being chemically changed  Enzymes – biological catalysts