1. Causes of Confederation

2. The idea of uniting the colonies of British North America had been around for a long time – ever since the Loyalists had arrived But it wasn’t until the 1860s that several key elements came together to make the union both a reality – and a necessity A change in British attitudes A renewed fear of an American invasion The impending loss of free trade with the United States The promise (and financial debts) of a dawning age of rail Political stalemate in the Canadas And last but not least, the “glory argument” – that shimmering romantic allure of creating something bigger, better, grander

3. A Change in Britain’s Attitude Britain was still the head of an empire and as imperialistic as ever But emphasis on trade and profit rather than military might and imperial monopolies British North American colonies now seen as a “burden” British North America needed to grow up and take more responsibility for its own affairs – without leaving the British Empire entirely, of course. A self-governing union, still under the final authority of Great Britain, seemed like the ideal solution

4. The U.S. Civil War Fear of an American takeover during the Civil War was perhaps the leading cause of Canadian Confederation. The Civil War in the United States (1861-1865) was tearing the country apart. The slave-owning Confederate states of the South had attempted to leave the union, and the free states of the North (the Union) were hammering them into submission.

5. The U.S. Civil War Canada didn’t support the slave-owning southern Confederacy but it was caught up in the struggle anyway Britain claimed to be neutral but showed clear sympathy and even support for the breakaway states of the South. The US government became very anti-British and newspapers in Chicago and New York warned Canada, “Just wait ‘til this war is over. You’re next!”

6. The Impact of the US Civil War on Canada The Civil War in the United States added a sense of urgency to the move toward Confederation An attack on Canada by the Americans seemed very likely because of Britain’s not quite so neutral position in the civil war Defence became a key concern for people in the British North American colonies (Canada) Uniting together would be one way to ensure that they were protected from the possibility of American attacks. (Britain couldn’t be counted on anymore)

7. The Impending End of Free Trade The colonies had worked out a Treaty of Reciprocity (that is, open or “free” trade) with the United States This allowed the Canadian and Maritime colonies to sell their fish, lumber, coal, and grain in the lucrative American market. Reciprocity brought prosperity but it also made the colonies increasingly dependent on US trade policies

8. The Impending End of Free Trade The Treaty was due to be renewed in 1865, but the tensions caused by the US Civil War made it likely that they would let the agreement lapse, ending free trade Once the American market had been cut off, what then? A union of the British North American colonies made a lot of sense. It would allow cross-colonial access to Maritime fisheries, New Brunswick timber, Canadian factories, and perhaps even the land and natural resources of the vast Northwest

9. Annexation? Annexation is the legal incorporation of some territory into another country The Americans announced that they would not renew the Reciprocity Treaty, but what they were trying to do was to force Canada to join the American union They thought that ending free trade would force the Canadians into annexation with the United States, but instead the impending end of free trade actually drew them closer together

10. “Crossroads” Shall we go to Washington first, or Ottawa?

11. “Crossroads” Charles Tupper was a warm advocate of Confederation, and did more than any other public man to induce his native province, Nova Scotia (Acadia), to enter the union in 1867. Joseph Howe, a much greater statesman than Tupper, and a man of vast influence, was amongst the opponents of the measure in question, and was suspected of a preference for Annexation to the United States. In the cartoon the Province is represented as halting between the two opinions, and the loyal artist takes pains to point out that the advantages are all in the way that leads 'to Ottawa.”

12. The Railway Revolution If the American Civil War and the end of free trade made Confederation necessary, the railways made it possible. Trains could run year round Trains were much faster than travelling on horseback The colonies had been isolated from each other by the sheer scale of the Canadian geography but that obstacle could now be crossed

13. The Railway Revolution There were a lot of profits to be made from railways It’s not a coincidence that many of the leading promoters of Confederation had some affiliation with the railway (George Etienne Cartier was the Grand Trunk Railway’s lawyer) The military threat from the United States made it important to have a separate, internally connected colonial railway that didn’t have to pass through the United States It could be used to move troops from the Maritimes to the interior quickly and efficiently

14. British North America 1840

15. Stalemate in the Province of Canada The push for Confederation began in the United Province of Canada – and for good reason They were experiencing a political deadlock –The Province of Canada was split right down the middle, along political, cultural, social, and linguistic lines –With equal seats awarded to both sides, anyone wishing to hold power needed a majority that included French-Canadian voters. –The Act of Union which created the Province of Canada actually strengthened the French-Canadian position – not weakened it as it was supposed to

16. “Rep by Pop” The population of the Province of Canada was growing and the biggest increase was in the English-speaking region of Canada West (Ontario) Despite the difference in population, the Parliament was still divided on a strict 50-50 spit of seats For George Brown and his Reformers, this was plainly unfair and they began to call for “Rep by pop!” or representation by population. It was, said Brown, the only way to end “French Catholic domination”

17. “Rep by Pop” Members in Canada East refused to accept the “Rep by Pop” idea. The result? An ongoing political stalemate One way to break the deadlock would be to create a union with the other British colonies. Canada West and Canada East, as separate provinces, would have their own government and their own decision making process. This would give Canada West greater autonomy, while still allowing for inter-colonial trade and defence

18. Province of Canada Politics Conservatives (Tories) –Canada West: John A. Macdonald’s “Liberal- Conservative” Party –Canada East: George-Etienne Cartier’s parti bleu (aligned with the Church, and pro British and Anti-American in tone) Reformers (Grits) –Canada West: George Brown’s Reform Party –Canada East: Antoine-Aime Dorion’s radical parti rouge

19. The Great Coalition On June 24, 1864, George Brown did something remarkable. He rose in the Assembly and offered to cross the floor. That is, he agreed to end the political deadlock by joining a coalition with his arch nemesis John A. Macdonald He had 3 conditions: –The coalition work toward creating a larger united federation of all British North America –The government of Canada, and any future union, be based on representation by population –The federation expand westward to the Northwest and perhaps even to the Pacific before the Americans did

20. Charlottetown Conference September 1864

21. Why are all the delegates men?

22. “Confederation! The Much-Fathered Youngster”

23. Quebec Conference October 1864

24. Fenian Raids 1866

25. D’Arcy McGee

26. Charles Tupper

27. Joseph Howe

28. Leonard Tilley

29. A.A. Dorion

30. George Etienne Cartier

31. George Brown

32. Sir John A. Macdonald

33. Dominion of Canada 1867