1. Chapter 2

2.  The basis of the scientific method – is making observations in a systematic way, following strict rules of evidence, and thinking critically about the evidence.

3.  Empirical evidence – evidence from observations of publicly observable behavior. This is so that other scientists can make the same observations.  Scientists are careful to use operational definitions – this means that the definitions they use can be measured.  When you know the operation of measurement, you can easily evaluate the quality of the evidence.

4.  Science deals in theories and not in truths.  Theories – are tentative explanations of observations in science. Theories are always subject to change.  A theory is tested by making a prediction based on that theory – called a hypothesis.  Scientists will often do a study to confirm or deny a hypothesis.

5.  Humans or animals are used as research participants. A group of participants – called a sample – are studied in order to learn more about human behavior.  When a sample is representative, it means that it is an accurate picture of the men and women of the U.S. or other distinct group.  It would be more convenient to just choose a sample of people for a study, but this is biased and will generally not reflect a representative population.  Replication – redoing a study again and again, is used as validation of the conclusion(s) of a study.

6.  All research methods are based on critical thinking about systematic observations.  Descriptive studies – scientists look at how people are living their lives and then describe this behavior and series of mental processes.

7.  Survey method – one way to figure out human behavior is to ask people questions. This is called the survey method.  Surveys are widely used in order to describe people’s opinions about TV, animals, political candidates, etc.  As an example, what month are people in the worst mood? Conclusion – the coldest months and the shortest light in the day.  One advantage of the survey method is that you can get quite a bit of information in a short period of time.  Surveys can be influenced by: a representative sample. You cannot be sure that people are being honest. If the questions are controversial, it is difficult to know if the answers are accurate. The survey can be swayed depending upon who is conducting it.

8.  Naturalistic observations – careful observations in a real- world setting. Example – Jane Goodall. She watches apes for a long period of time and takes detailed notes, until patterns of behavior become evident.  Naturalistic observations help scientists to see how people greet each other, develop friendships, develop leadership patterns, and discourage anti-social behavior.

9.  Clinical method – involves observing people with psychological problems while they receive mental health help. Sigmund Freud developed his theories of people based upon his observations of people.  This method is used for preliminary evaluation of clinical treatment methods.

10.  This method is used to see whether or not observations are systematically related. Example – does watching violence make people more violent?  In this method, researchers simply measure the two variables and see if they are statistically related.  A variable – is anything that can be assigned a numerical value.  The difference between correlational methods and naturalistic observation is the use of quantitative methods.  Correlation coefficient – the numerical expression of the strength and the direction of a relationship between two variables.  Negative correlations – as one variable goes up, the other one goes down.  Positive correlation – the variables will go in the same direction (both up or both down).  Correlation does not mean causation. Finding two variables that correlate talks about their relation, but does not necessarily mean that one variable influences another variable. We need to look at how strongly the variables are correlated.

11.  This is a carefully constructed experiment, which allows the researcher to draw conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships.  There are many studies out there that show persons who watch violent films are more apt to become violent.

12.  Every formal experiment has at least two variables. The independent variable – is what the researcher arranges to allow a comparison of the participants’ behavior under different conditions.  The dependent variable is the measure of the specific behavior of interest that may (or may not) be related to the independent variable.  In the simplest formal experiments, one group is placed in the condition that is hypothesized to influence the behavior of the participants and is called the experimental group.  The other group does not receive any of the active ingredients given the independent variable. This is called the control group. If the behaviors of the experimental group are different from the control group, the hypothesis that differences in the independent variable cause differences in the dependent variable is supported.  When the control group and experimental groups are being chosen, it has to be random. Generally, this is done with a computer. If there is no randomness, the experiment is valid.  Experimental control – requirements that all explanations for differences in the dependent variable are controlled in formal experiments, except for differences in conditions of the independent variable.

13.  Experimental control is important to talk about. A good example is used with medications. Many people that have been given pills that have no active ingredients may still get better. This is called the placebo effect. Placebo pills should look like the control pills, but have no active ingredient.

14.  This type of experiment takes place when those that record the data do not know which group the participants are in.  These groups require random assignment – which means equalizing the groups as far as their sexes, traits, ethnicities, etc.  If everything is controlled, than a formal experiment can give some explanation for the circumstances. All alternatives explanations must be controlled for to determine whether the dependent variable can be traced back to the independent variable.

15.  The placebo effect – those that are given a pill without any symptoms will often believe they feel an effect. Persons in the control group are always given the placebo. These pills look exactly like the medication, but have no active ingredients. The placebo does not always have to be a pill, it can be a therapy. It is sometime impossible to know if the therapy did help. Researchers always have to create conditions that are alike, except for the independent variable (the active ingredient or treatment).

16.  When the persons that scored the individuals did not know which group the participants were in (experimental or control group), this is called a blind experiment.  Researchers are kept blind in order to record the data without bias.  Researchers also are kept blind to rule out experimenter bias. Studies show that when they are “blind” they tend to act more neutrally to the participants.  The strongest formal experiments are double blind. This is when neither the researcher or the data collector knows which group the participants are in.

17.  Descriptive statistics – the findings of most research are in quantitative terms. Numerical results for the large groups are often summarized given descriptive statistics.  Mean – average  Median – when the set of numbers are lined up from the smallest to the to largest, the median is the middle point. When the numbers show a regular curve or bell shape, this is called a normal distribution.  Mode – this is the most common score that comes up.  Standard deviation – mathematical measurement of how spread out scores are from the mean score.

18.  Researchers have the obligation to protect the welfare of their participants. There has to be:  1) Freedom from coercion – people cannot be pressured into being in an experiment. College students cannot be forced to participate for a grade. Those that are in jail cannot be given parole for participation. Those that are in a study can choose to quit at any time.  2) Informed consent – the participants must be given a full description of the procedures of the study and its risks and benefits in a language that can be understood.  3) Limited deception – sometimes the participants cannot always know the true reason for the study. The deception can involve only aspects of the study that would not influence the decision to participate. The nature of the deception must be fully revealed to individuals immediately after their participation in the experiment.  4) Adequate debriefing – the participants have the right to know the outcome of the study.  5) Confidentiality – all information about the participants needs to be kept confidential. Published results have to be anonymous. Proposals for the experiment have to be approved by the board.

19.  Some studies are used given animals because it would be unethical to use non-humans.  Some studies using the brain require surgically removing a part of the brain to discover its role. A researcher can control almost every portion of the experiment if an animal is used including: diet, social experiences, and environment.  Sometimes, researcher study animals in order to decide how to best protect endangered species.  The APA states that in order to conduct research on animals, the following criteria must be met:  1) Necessity – it must be shown that the experiment significantly can advance the understanding of human or animal behavior given mental processes.  2) Health – all animals must be cared for given optimum health.  3) Humane treatment – all effort must be made to minimize harm to the animal. Surgery must be performed with anesthesia and death must be as painless as possible.  This has become difficult given the strength of animal rights groups.