1. Chapter 6 - 1 ISSUES TO ADDRESS... Stress and strain: What are they and why are they used instead of load and deformation? Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much deformation occurs? What materials deform least? Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent deformation occur? What materials are most resistant to permanent deformation? Toughness and ductility: What are they and how do we measure them? Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties

2. Chapter 6 - 2 Elastic means reversible! Elastic Deformation 2. Small load F  bonds stretch 1. Initial3. Unload return to initial F  Linear- elastic Non-Linear- elastic

3. Chapter 6 - 3 Plastic means permanent! Plastic Deformation (Metals) F  linear elastic linear elastic  plastic 1. Initial2. Small load3. Unload planes still sheared F  elastic + plastic bonds stretch & planes shear  plastic

4. Chapter 6 - 4  Stress has units: N/m 2 or lb f /in 2 Engineering Stress Shear stress,  : Area, A o F t F t F s F F F s  = F s A o Tensile stress,  : original area before loading  = F t A o 2 f 2 m N or in lb = Area, A o F t F t

5. Chapter 6 - 5 Simple tension: cable Note:  = M/A c R here. Common States of Stress o   F A o   F s A  M M A o 2R2R F s A c Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson) A o = cross sectional area (when unloaded) FF

6. Chapter 6 - 6 (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson) Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM o   F A Simple compression: Note: compressive structure member (  < 0 here). (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson) OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i) A o Balanced Rock, Arches National Park

7. Chapter 6 - 7 Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression: Pressurized tank   < 0 h (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson) (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson) OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii) Fish under water  z > 0  

8. Chapter 6 - 8 Tensile strain: Lateral strain: Strain is always dimensionless. Engineering Strain Shear strain:  90º 90º -  y xx   =  x/y = tan   L o Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.  /2 L o w o   L  L w o  L

9. Chapter 6 - 9 Stress-Strain Testing Typical tensile test machine Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.) specimen extensometer Typical tensile specimen Adapted from Fig. 6.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. gauge length

10. Chapter 6 - 10 Figure 6.7 Neck down of a tensile test specimen within its gage length after extension beyond the tensile strength

11. Chapter 6 - 11

12. Chapter 6 - 12

13. Chapter 6 - 13 Figure 6.4 The yield strength is defined relative to the intersection of the stress–strain curve with a “0.2% offset.” Yield strength is a convenient indication of the onset of plastic deformation.

14. Chapter 6 - 14 Figure 6.5 Elastic recovery occurs when stress is removed from a specimen that has already undergone plastic deformation

15. Chapter 6 - 15 Linear Elastic Properties Modulus of Elasticity, E: (also known as Young's modulus) Hooke's Law:  = E   Linear- elastic E  F F simple tension test

16. Chapter 6 - 16 Poisson's ratio, Poisson's ratio, : Units: E: [GPa] or [psi] : dimensionless > 0.50 density increases < 0.50 density decreases (voids form) LL  -   L  metals: ~ 0.33 ceramics: ~ 0.25 polymers: ~ 0.40

17. Chapter 6 - 17

18. Chapter 6 - 18 Mechanical Properties Slope of stress strain plot (which is proportional to the elastic modulus) depends on bond strength of metal Adapted from Fig. 6.7, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

19. Chapter 6 - 19 Elastic Shear modulus, G:  G   = G  Other Elastic Properties simple torsion test M M Special relations for isotropic materials: 2(1  ) E G  3(1  2 ) E K  Elastic Bulk modulus, K: pressure test: Init. vol =V o. Vol chg. =  V P PP P = -K  V V o P  V K V o

20. Chapter 6 - 20

21. Chapter 6 - 21 Metals Alloys Graphite Ceramics Semicond Polymers Composites /fibers E(GPa) Based on data in Table B.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Composite data based on reinforced epoxy with 60 vol% of aligned carbon (CFRE), aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE) fibers. Young’s Moduli: Comparison 10 9 Pa

22. Chapter 6 - 22 Simple tension:  FLFL o EA o  L  Fw o EA o Material, geometric, and loading parameters all contribute to deflection. Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection. Useful Linear Elastic Relationships F A o  /2  L LoLo w o Simple torsion:  2ML o  r o 4 G M = moment  = angle of twist 2ro2ro LoLo

23. Chapter 6 - 23 (at lower temperatures, i.e. T < T melt /3) Plastic (Permanent) Deformation Simple tension test: engineering stress,  engineering strain,  Elastic+Plastic at larger stress pp plastic strain Elastic initially Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. permanent (plastic) after load is removed

24. Chapter 6 - 24 Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has occurred. when  p = 0.002 Yield Strength,  y  y = yield strength Note: for 2 inch sample  = 0.002 =  z/z   z = 0.004 in Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. tensile stress,  engineering strain,  yy pp = 0.002

25. Chapter 6 - 25 Room temperature values Based on data in Table B.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered Yield Strength : Comparison

26. Chapter 6 - VMSE: Virtual Tensile Testing 26

27. Chapter 6 - 27 Tensile Strength, TS Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts. Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are aligned and about to break. Adapted from Fig. 6.11, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. yy strain Typical response of a metal F = fracture or ultimate strength Neck – acts as stress concentrator engineering TS stress engineering strain Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.

28. Chapter 6 - 28 Tensile Strength: Comparison Based on data in Table B.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE = aramid, glass, & carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy composites, with 60 vol% fibers. Room temperature values

29. Chapter 6 - 29 Plastic tensile strain at failure: Ductility Another ductility measure: 100x A AA RA% o fo - = x 100 L LL EL% o of   LfLf AoAo AfAf LoLo Adapted from Fig. 6.13, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Engineering tensile strain,  Engineering tensile stress,  smaller %EL larger %EL

30. Chapter 6 - 30 Energy to break a unit volume of material Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve. Toughness Brittle fracture: elastic energy Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy Adapted from Fig. 6.13, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. very small toughness (unreinforced polymers) Engineering tensile strain,  Engineering tensile stress,  small toughness (ceramics) large toughness (metals)

31. Chapter 6 - 31 Resilience, U r Ability of a material to store energy –Energy stored best in elastic region If we assume a linear stress-strain curve this simplifies to Adapted from Fig. 6.15, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. yyr 2 1 U 

32. Chapter 6 - 32 Elastic Strain Recovery Adapted from Fig. 6.17, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Stress Strain 3. Reapply load 2. Unload D Elastic strain recovery 1. Load yoyo yiyi

33. Chapter 6 - 33 True Stress & Strain Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched True stress True strain Adapted from Fig. 6.16, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

34. Chapter 6 - 34 Hardness Resistance to permanently indenting the surface. Large hardness means: -- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression. -- better wear properties. e.g., 10 mm sphere apply known force measure size of indent after removing load d D Smaller indents mean larger hardness. increasing hardness most plastics brasses Al alloys easy to machine steelsfile hard cutting tools nitrided steelsdiamond

35. Chapter 6 - 35 Hardness: Measurement Rockwell –No major sample damage –Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100. –Minor load 10 kg –Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond HB = Brinell Hardness –TS (psia) = 500 x HB –TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

36. Chapter 6 - 36 Hardness: Measurement Table 6.5

37. Chapter 6 - 37 Hardening Curve fit to the stress-strain response:  T  K  T  n “true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/L o ) hardening exponent: n =0.15 (some steels) to n =0.5 (some coppers) An increase in  y due to plastic deformation.   large hardening small hardening  y 0  y 1

38. Chapter 6 - 38 Variability in Material Properties Elastic modulus is material property Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws (defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability. Statistics –Mean –Standard Deviation where n is the number of data points

39. Chapter 6 - 39 Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit. Factor of safety, N Often N is between 1.2 and 4 Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a factor of safety of 5. Design or Safety Factors 5 1045 plain carbon steel:  y = 310 MPa TS = 565 MPa F = 220,000N d L o d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm

40. Chapter 6 - 40 Stress and strain: These are size-independent measures of load and displacement, respectively. Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a linear relation between stress and strain. To minimize deformation, select a material with a large elastic modulus (E or G). Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material. Ductility: The plastic strain at failure. Summary Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress reaches  y.