1. TURNING TO CRIME- UPBRINGING FARRINGTON DISRUPTED FAMILIES LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF 411 BOYS AGED 8 AND 9 INTERVIEWS AT 8, 10, 14, 16, 18, 21, 25, 31 AND 48 PARENTAL INTERVIEWS AND TEACHER INTERVIEWS 98% INTERVIEWED AT 48 48- 404 P’S SEARCHED AND 161 HAD CRIMINAL CONVICTIONS NUMBER OF OFFENCES AND OFFENDERS PEAKED AT 18 CRIMINAL CAREERS STARTED AGED 10-13 AND NEARLY ALL RECONVICTED (91%) MOST OF THE CHRONIC OFFENDERS SHARED CHILDHOOD CHARACTERISTICS; CONVICTED BEFORE AGE OF 21, CONVICTED PARENT, A DELINQUENT SIBLING, YOUNG MUM, LOW POPULARITY OFFENDERS TEND TO BE DEVIANT IN MANY AREAS OF THEIR LIVES MOST IMPORTANT RISK FACTORS IN THE FAMILY ARE POVERTY, IMPULSIVENESS, POOR CHILD REARING, POOR SCHOOL PERFORMANCE EARLY INTERVENTION PROGRAMES CREATED TURNING TO CRIME- UPBRINGING SUTHERLAND THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION BASIC ASSUMPTION THAT CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNT THROUGH EXPOSURE TO CRIMINAL NORMS CRIMINALITY ARISES FROM TWO FACTORS; LEARNED FROM ATTITUDES AND IMITATIONS OF BEHAVIOURS LEARNED THROUGH COMMUNICATION OCCURING WITHIN PERSONAL GROUPS INCLUDES LEARNING OF TECHNIQUES, RATIONALISATIONS, ATTITUDES, DRIVES AND MOTIVES BECOMES DELINQUENT AFTER TOO MUCH CONTACT WITH CRIMINALS AND NO CONTACT WITH NON-CRIMINALS- THOSE FAVOURABLE TO VIOLATIONS OF LAW PROCESS OF LEARNING SAME AS LEARNING A NEW SKILL TURNING TO CRIME- UPBRINGING - WIKSTROM AND TAFEL CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY OF 2000 YEAR 10 STUDENTS DATA COLLECTED FROM OFFICAL STATISTISICS, INTERVIEWS AND QUESTIONAIRES RESPONSE RATE OF 92.4%. INTERVIEW INCLUDED 339 BOYS AND GIRLS DATA FROM 1998/99 CENSUS AND NEIGHBOUR HOOD DISADVANTAGEMENT USED TO CLASSIFY STRUCTURAL CONTEXTS OF AREA OF RESIDENCE 45% OF MALES AND 31% OF FEMALES HAD COMMITTED ONE CRIME IN 2000 10% OF MALES AND 4% OF FEMALES COMMITTED SERIOUS THEFT CRIME OFFENDERS MORE LIKELY TO ABUSE DRINK AND/OR DRUGS SUGGESTED 3 TYPES OF ADOLESCENT OFFENDERS- 1.PROPENSITY INDUCED- PROBLEM CHILDREN- RISK FACTORS;POOR FAMILY BONDS, LOW LEVEL OF SELF CONTROL, ANTI-SOCIAL VALUES, HIGH RISK OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE 2.LIFESTYLE DEPENDANT- OFFEND WHEN THEY HAVE HIGH RISK LIFESTYLES 3.SITUATIONALLY LIMITED- OCCASIONALLY OFFEND. UNLIKELY TO REOFFEND NO EVIDENCE FOR SOCIAL CLASS OR NEIGHBOURHOOD DISADVANTAGE BASED ADOLESCENT SUBCULTURE OF ANTI-SOCIALVALIES- NOT A STRONG PREDICTOR. TURNING TO CRIME- BIOLOGY -RAINE BRAIN DYSFUNCTIONS 41 PRISIONERS 39M/2F MEAN AGE OF 34.3 CHARGED WITH MANSLAUGHTER- NONE RECEIVED THEIR MEDICATION 2 WEEKS PRIOR TO THE BRAIN SCANNING EACH WAS MATCHED WITH A ‘NORMAL’ SUBJECT FOR AGE, SEX AND SCHIZOPHENIA WHERE NECESSARY AND SCREENED TO EXCLUDE ILLNESS AND HISTORY OF MURDER ALL PS INJECTED WITH A TRACER SUBSTANCE THAT WAS TAKEN UP BY THE BRAIN TO SHOW THEIR BRIAN ACTIVITY WHILE THEY PARTICIPATED IN A CONTINUOUS PERFOMANCE TASK REQURING THEM TO DETECT SIGNALS PET SCAN USED TO SHOW THE RELATIVE BRAIN ACTIVITY NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE ON THE CPT PREFRONTAL CORTEX- LOWER ACTIVITY LINKED TO SELF CONTROL CORPUS CALLOSUM- LOWER ACTIVITY STOP LEFT BRAIN INHIBITING RIGHTS VIOLENCE AMYGALDA AND THALAMUS- LOWER/HIGHER CAUSE LACK OF INHIBITION FOR VIOLENCE AND FAILURE TO LEARN NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF VIOLENCE

2. TURNING TO CRIME- BIOLOGY BRUNNER LINK BETWEEN GENETIC ABNORMALITY AND VIOLENT BEHAVIOUR CASE STUDY ON A FAMILY IN THE NETHERLANDS WHERE MALES AFFECTED BY A SYNDROME OF X LINKED BORDERLINE MENTAL RETARDATION 5 AFFECTED MALES DATA COLLECTED THROUGH URINE SAMPLES OVER A 24 HOUR PERIOD AND SOME CLINICAL CASE STUDY BEHAVIOURAL MATERIAL REPORTED BY THE FAMILY MALES SHOWED DISTURBED AGGRESSION REGULATION. A MUTATION WAS IDENTIFIED IN THE X CHROMOSOME OF THE GENE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PRODUCTION OF MAOA MAOA IS INVOLVED IN SEROTONIN METABOLISM AND IMPAIRED METABOLISM IS LIKELY TO BE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE MENTAL RETARDATION AND COULD BE LINKED TO AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR TURNING TO CRIME- BIOLOGY DALY AND WILSON CORRELATIONAL STUDY USING SURVEY DATA FROM POLICE RECORDS, SCHOOL RECORDS AND LOCAL DEMOGRAPHIC RECORDS. 77 AREAS IN CHICAGO WERE STUDIED. LOCAL AREA AVERAVAGE LIFE EXPECTANCIES RANGING FROM 54-77 COMPARED TO HOMOCIDE RATES IN THOSE AREAS HOMICIDE RATES VARIED FROM 13 TO 156 HOMICIDES PER 100,000 PERSONS. THE CORRELATION BETWEEN LIFE EXPECTANCY AND HOMICIDE RATE WAS STRONG CONCLUDED THAT YOUNG MEN FROM DISADVANTAGED NEIGHBOURHOODS EXPECTED TO LIVE SHORTER LIVES AND WERE THEREFORE MORE LIKELY TO ENGAGE IN RISKY BEHAVIOUR- SHORT TERM HORIZON- WANT IMMEDIATE GRATIFICATION SHORT LIFESPAN EXPECTANCY DUE TO THE RISKY BEHAVIOUR EVOLUNTIONARY THEORISTS SUGGEST MALE ROLE OF HUNTER AND PROTECTER PREDISPOSE THEM TO MORE RISKY BEHAVIOUR TURNING TO CRIME- COGNITIVE YOCHELSON AND SAMENOW LONGITUDINAL STUDY OVER 14 YEARS CONDUCTED BY TWO DOCTORS IN A MENTAL HOSPITAL 255 MALE PARTICIPANTS FROM VARIOUS BACKGROUNDS ALL CONVICTED CRIMINALS WHO PLEADED NOT GUILTY BY REASON OF INSANITY OR REFERRED BY OUTSIDE AGENCIES MOST P’S DROPPED OUT- ONLY 30 COMPLETED 52 CRIMINAL THINKING PATTERNS WERE DISTINGUISHED IN THE CRIMINAL PERSONALITY- CONSIDERED TO BE ERRORS IN THINKING 1.CRIMINAL THINKING ERRORS- NEED FOR POWER AND CONTROL 2.AUTOMATIC THINKING ERRORS- LACK OF EMPATHY AND TRUST 3.CRIME RELATED THINKING ERRORS- OPTIMISTIC FANTASISING ABOUT SPECIFIC CRIMINAL ACTS TURNING TO CRIME- COGNITIVE KOHLBERG 58 WORKING AND MIDDLE CLASS BOYS FROM CHICAGO AGED 10, 13 AND 16. 2 HOUR INTERVIEW WITH 10 DILEMMAS TO SOLVE. HALF IN EACH GROUP WERE UPPER MIDDLE CLASS AND HALF LOWER MIDDLE CLASS SOME BOYS FOLLOWED UP AFTER 3 YEARS STUDY WAS REPEATED IN 1969 IN THE UK, MEXICO, TAIWAN, USA AND YUCATAN YOUNGER BOYS TENDED TO PERFORM AT STAGES 1 AND 2 WHILE OLDER BOYS PERFORM AT STAGES 3 AND 4- CONSISTENT ACROSS CULTURES LEVEL 1- STAGE 1- PUNISHMENT AND OBEDIENCE STAGE 2- HEDONISTIC ORIENTATION- DOING RIGHT FOR PERSONAL GAIN LEVEL 2- STAGE 3- INTERPERSONAL CONCORDANCE- RIGHT DUE TO MAJORITY STAGE 4- LAW AND ORDER- MUST BE OBEYED AND FOLLOWED LEVEL 3- STAGE 5- SOCIAL CONTEXT- MORALLY RIGHT EVEN AGAINST LAW STAGE 6- UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES- INNER CONSCIENCE SUPPORTS THE STAGE THEORY- MOVE THROUGH 6 STAGES AS WE GET OLDER

3. TURNING TO CRIME- COGNITIVE GUDJOHNSON INTERNAL-SITUATIONAL EXTERNAL- DISPOSITIONAL MENTAL ELEMENT- INTERNAL ATTRIBUTIONS FOCUSING ON THOUGHTS 60 CRIMINALS SERVING SENTENCES IN NI. 20 COMMITTED VIOLENT OFFENCE, 40 SEX OFFENCES, 20 PROPERTY CRIMES. ASKED TO FILL OUT 42 ITEM ‘BLAME ATTRIBUTION INVENTORY’ MEAN SCORES TAKEN CRIMINALS WHO COMMITTED SEXUAL CRIMES (12.7) FELT TWICE THE GUILT OF PROPERTY CRIMES (5.5) AND ALSO SCORED HIGHEST ON THE MENTAL ELEMENT PROPERTY CRIMES HAD LOWEST LEVELS OF GUILT DIFFERENT CRIMINALS ATTRIBUTE THEIR BEHAVIOUR IN DIFFERENT WAYS. COMPARED WITH STUDY IN ENGLAND AND HIGH LEVEL OF CONSISTENCY MAKING A CASE- INTERVIEWING WITNESSES- BRUCE INVESTIGATE RECOGNISABILITY OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FEATURES 1- 30 15M/15F STAFF AND STUDENTS FROM STIRLING UNI PAID £2 1- INDEPENDENT MEASURES DESIGN WITH 3 CONDITIONS. PS GIVEN 10 CELEBRITY PHOTOS THEY DIDN’T KNOW AND RANDOMLY ASSIGNED A CONDITION 1- COMPLETE FACE COMPOSITES 2- COMPOSITES ONLY CONTAINING INTERNAL 3- COMPOSITES ONLY CONTAINING EXTERNAL 2- 48 21M/27F UNDERGRADUATES AT STIRLING ALL VOLUNTEERS 2- INDEPENDENT MEASURES DESIGN WITH 2 CONDITIONS. USED PHOTO ARRAY- HAD TO IDENTIFY CELEB PHOTO FROM LINE UP OF 5. TASK EITHER EASY OR HARD 1- COMPOSITES OF INTERNAL FEATURES 2- COMPOSITES OF EXTERNAL FEATURES 1- 42% OF WHOLE COMPOSITES AND EXTERNAL FEATURES WERE SORTED CORRECTLY WHILE ONLY 19.5% OF INTERNAL FEATURES WERE 2- EXTERNAL FEATURES IDENTIFIED 42% OF TIME COMPARED TO 24% INTERNAL Ps PERFORMED AT JUST ABOVE CHANCE LEVEL FOR INTERNAL. EXTERNAL MORE IMPORTANT WHEN RECOGNISING FACES- EXTERNAL AND WHOLE SIMILAR MAKING A CASE- INTERVIEWING WITNESSES- LOFTUS 36 STUDENTS FROM WASHINGTON UNI AGED 18-31 ½ RECRUITED VIA NEWSPAPER ADVERT AND PAID $3.50, ½ PSYCH STUDENTS FOR EXTRA CREDIT BELIEVED IT WAS A STUDY ABOUT PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE LAB EXPERIMENT- SHOWN 18 SLIDES OF A SERIES OF EVENTS IN TACO RESTRAURANT BOTH GROUPS HAD EXACTLY SAME SLIDES EXCEPT ONE CONTROL SLIDE- 2 ND PERSON IN QUEUE HANDED CASHIER EITHER A GUN OR CHEQUE AND TOLD TO RATE THEIR CONFIDENCE ABOUT THE IDENTIFICATION. TIME PS EYES WERE FIXED ON CHEQUE OR GUN WAS MEASURED SHOW 12 PHOTOS IN RANDOM ORDER AND ASKED TO IDENTIFY PERSON B ANSWERS TO QUESTIONAIRE SHOWED NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE HOWEVER CHEQUE GROUP IDENTIFIED PERSON B 38.9% AND GUN GROUP 11.1%. EYE FIXATION DATA SHOWED ON AVERAGE FIXATION TIME OF 3.72 SECS ON THE GUN COMPARED TO 2.44 SECS ON THE CHEQUE PS SPENT LONGER LOOKING AT THE WEAPON AND THEREFORE HAD MORE DIFFICULTY IN PICKING THE SUSPECT FROM THE LINE-UP. FINDINGS SUPPORT WEAPON FOCUS. MAKING A CASE- INTERVIEWING WITNESSES FISHER A FIELD EXPERIMENT OF INTERVIEWS WITH REAL WITNESSES BY 16 DETECTIVES FROM ROBBERY DIVISION INTERVIEWS CARRIED OUT WITH REAL WITNESSES TO ROBBERIES. INTERVIEWS RECORDED AND ANALYSED BY UNI OF CALIFORNIA WHO WERE UNAWARE SOME DETECTIVES UNTRAINED IN COGNITIVE INTERVIEW WHOLE SAMPLE COMPLETED STANDARD INTERVIEWS- HALF THEN TRAINED IN COGNITIVE INTERVIEW HOWEVER ONE DROPPED OUT RECORDED THE INTERVIEWS AGAIN HOWEVER 7 NOW TRAINED IN CI 63% MORE INFO OBTAINED BY POLICE TRAINED IN CI WIDELY USED BY THE POLICE POLICE HAVE TO BE TRAINED IN COGNITIVE INTERVIEW THIS CAN BE EXPENSIVE AND TIME CONSUMING

4. MAKING A CASE- INTERVIEWING SUSPECTS MANN FIELD EXPERIMENT 99 KENT POLICE OFFICERS 24F/75M PARTICIPANTS SHOWN 54 VIDEO CLIPS INVOLVING 14 SUSPECTS OF REAL LIFE POLICE INTERVIEWS. CLIPS OF HEAD AND TORSO AND RANGED IN LENGTH PS FILLED OUT A QUESTIONAIRE ABOUT THEIR EXPERIENCES OF DETECTING LIES AND DECIDE IF CLIP WAS TRUTHFUL OR A LIE AND MAKE NOTE OF LIE CUES POLICE OFFICERS PERFORMED BETTER THAN CHANCE (50%) THEY WERE 66% ACCURATE ON LIES AND 63% ACCURATE ON TRUTHS. CUES MENTIONED WERE GAZE, MOVEMENTS, VAGUENESS, CONTRADICTIONS AND FIDGETING POLICE WERE GOOD AT DETECTING LIES AND LEVEL OF ACCURACY HIGHER THAN THAN FOUND IN PREVIOUS STUDIES. POLICE WHO WERE GOOD RELIED MORE ON STORY CUES THAN NON VERBAL CUES NO CONTROL GROUP TO ESTABLISH WHETHER THEY WERE BETTER THAN THE PUBLIC- COULDN’T HAVE ONE THOUGH DUE TO CONFIDENTIALITY MAKING A CASE- INTERVIEWING SUSPECTS INBAU INTERROGATOR PRESENTS A MONOLOGUE AND DISCOURAGES THE SUSPECT FROM DENIAL OR EXPLANATIONS. OFFERS TWO CHOICES ONE IS LESS MORALLY CHALLENGING THAN THE OTHER THE INTEROGATION THEN MOVES ONTO NON-LEADING QUESTIONS TO DRAW OUT FULL CONFESSION. JUSTIFIES POLICE LYING AND DECIEVING DIRECT CONFRONTATION- SUSPECT TO UNDERSTAND POLICE EVIDENCE ON THEM AS A SUSPECT, EARLY OPPORTUNITY TO EXPLAIN WHY. TRY TO SHIFT THE BLAME, NEVER ALL THE SUSPECT TO DENY ANY GUILT, IGNORE ANY EXCUSES, REINFORCE SINCERITY TO ENSURE SUSPECT IS RECEPTIVE, IF SUSPECT CRIES, INFER FUILT. POSE THE ALTERNATIVE QUESTION GIVING TWO CHOICE AS TO WHAT HAPPENED, ONE MORE SOCIALLY ACCEPTED THAN OTHERS, ADMIT GUILT, CONFESSION. MAKING A CASE- INTERVIEWING SUSPECTS GUDJOHNSON CASE STUDY OF A 17 YEAR OLD YOUTH WHO WAS ACCUSED OF TWO MURDERS OF ELDERLY WOMEN WHO WERE ALSO ROBBED OF THEIR SAVING AND SUFFERED SEXUAL ASSAULT. ARRESTED DUE TO INCONSISTENCIES IN HIS MOVEMENTS ON THE DAY OF MURDERS AND SPENDING MORE MONEY THAN USUAL. DENIED ACCESS TO SOLICITOR AFTER ARREST AND INTERVIEWED AT LENGTH. RELEASED AFTER A YEAR OF FALSE IMPRISONMENT FIRST INTERVIEW LASTED NEARLY 14 HOURS WITH NO BREAKS. FIRST DENIED BEING NEAR SCENE- REPEATED ACCUSED OF LYING SO AGREED. MANY LEADING QUESTIONS USED AND SUGGESTED HE WAS SEXUALLY IMPOTENT. RETRACTED HIS STATEMENT IN FRONT OF SOLICITOR THEN LATE RECONFESSED UNDER PRESSURE ABOUT HIS FAILED RELATIONSHIPS. NO MENTAL ILLNESS BUT SCORED 10 FOR SUGESTABILITY MAKING HIM ABNORMAL AND SUSCEPTIBLE TO PRESSURE. MAKING A CASE- TOP DOWN APPROACH APPROACH WAS ESTABLISHED BY THE FBI AND BASED ON INTERVIEWS WITH 36 CONVICTED SEXUALLY ORIENTATED MURDERS. ALSO USED THE COLLECTION OF DETAILED INFORMATION FROM MEMBERS OF THE BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE UNIT WHO WERE EXPERIENCED IN AREAS OF SEXUAL CRIME AND HOMICIDE ORGANISED OFFENDERS- ACTIONS ARE PREMEDICATED AND PLANNED. LIKELY TO BRING WEAPONS. SHOW SELF CONTROL AT THE SCENE AND ARE CAREFUL TO COVER THEIR TRACKS. LIKELY TO BE OF AVERAGE TO HIGH INTELLIGENCE AND EMPLOYED. POTENTIALLY MARRIED OR COHABITTING- SOCIALLY AND SEXUALLY COMPETANT DISORGANISED OFFENDERS- THERE WILL BE NO EVIDENCE OR PREMEDITATION AND THEY ARE MORE LIKELY TO LEAVE EVIDENCE SUCH AS BLOOD, SEMEN AND MURDER WEAPON BEHIND THIS TYPE OF OFFENDER IS THOUGHT TO BE LESS SOCIALLY COMPETENT. MORE LIKELY TO BE UNEMPLOYED OR IN UNSKILLED OCCUPATIONS. SOCIALLY AND SEXUALLY INCOMPETENT.

5. MAKING A CASE- BOTTOM UP APPROACH SCIENTIFIC, OBJECTIVE AND RELIABLE COMPARED TO TOP DOWN LOOKS FOR CONSISTENCES IN OFFENDERS BEHAVIOUR DURING THE CRIME. RELIES HEAVILY ON COMPUTER DATABASES WAY A OFFENDER BEHAVES DURING A CRIME MIRRORS THEIR EVERYDAY LIFE AND REVEALS CUES TO THEIR IDENTITY A MARAUDER USES A FIXED BASE TO COMMIT CRIME A COMUTTER TRAVELS TO HIS LOCATION TO COMMIT THE CRIME PSYCHOLOGISTS EXAMINE THE CRIME SCENES FOR CLUES AND ANALYSE VICTIM STATEMENTS CONSIDER; OFFENCE- TIMING, OFFENDING SITE, BODY DEPOSITION SITE, PATTERN OF INJURIES, SIGNATURE CAPTURE STYLE- INTERACTION STYLE, SEX, PATTERN OF VICTIMS, TROPHIES, SOUVENIOURS, PREVIOUS HISTORYN MAKING A CASE- CREATING A PROFILE CANTER ET AL SUPPORT FOR THE ORGANISED/DISORGANISED TYPOLOGY CLASSIFICATION OF SERIAL KILLERS ESTABLISHED IN THE USA. CONTENT ANALYSIS OF 100 CASES OF SERIAL HOMICIDES COMMITTED BY 100 US SERIAL KILLERS- PUBLISHED ACCOUNTS OF THE SERIAL KILLERS AND THEIR CRIMES TAKEN FROM SECONDARY SOURCES OF NATIONALLY AND INTERNATIONALLY KNOWN US NEWSPAPERS, PERIODICALS, JOURNALS, TRUE CRIME MAGAZINES, TRIAL TRANSCRIPTS AND CASE HISTORY NARRATIVES. CHECKED WITH COURT REPORTS AND OFFICERS. COLLECTED FOR THREE CRIMES IN THEIR SERIES AND THIRD CRIME USED FOR ANALYSIS. 1 ST /2 ND EXPLORATORY? IDENTIFIED 39 DIFFERENT CRIME FACTORS AND THIS WAS THEN FOLLOWED BY MULTI-DIMENSIONAL SCALING TEST. TWICE AS MANY DISORGANISED AS ORGANISED CRIME SCENES IDENTIFIED. 70% OF CASES THE BODY WAS CONCEALED AND 75% OF SEXUAL ACTIVITY DISTINCTION BETWEEN TWO TYPES OF SERIAL KILLERS ALL CRIMES HAVE TO HAVE A ORGANISED ELEMENT AS THEY HADN’T BE CAUGHT MAKING A CASE- CREATING A PROFILE CANTER AND HERITAGE CONTENT ANALYSIS ON 66 SEXUAL OFFENCES FROM VARIOUS POLICE FORCES COMITTED 27 OFFENDERS. INCLUDED POLICE/FORENSIC REPORTS AND VICTIM STATEMENTS. FIVE VARIABLES CENTRAL TO RAPE CASES- VAGINAL INTERCOURSE, NO REACTION TO THE VICTIM, IMPERSONAL LANGUAGE, SURPRISE ATTACK, VICTIMS CLOTHING DISTURBED SUGGESTS A PATTERN OF BEHAVIOUR WHERE ATTACK IS IMPERSONAL AND SUDDEN AND VICTIMS REPONSE IS IRRELEVANT TO THE OFFENDER KNOWN AS THE FIVE FACTOR THEORY. CONTRIBUTE TO ALL SEXUAL OFFENCES BUT IN DIFFERENT PATTERNS FOR DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS. ANALYSIS OF THESE FACTORS CAN ENABLE POLICE TO DECIDE IF AN OFFENCE HAS BEEN COMMITTED BY THE SAME INDIVIDUAL MAKING A CASE- CREATING A PROFILE- CANTER RAILWAY RAPIST/MURDERER- JOHN DUFFY- ‘CATCH HIM BEFORE HE KILLS AGAIN’ 1982- 19 WOMEN WERE RAPED NEAR HAMPSTEAD STATION AND THEN MORE THROUGH 1984 AND THEN 3 ON THE SAME NIGHT IN 1985. DEC 1985 A WOMAN WAS DRAGGED OFF A TRAIN AND STRANGLED WITH A PIECE OF STRING. 1986 A GIRL WAS RAPED AND STRANGLED. SYSTEMATICALLY DOCUMENT CRIMES, SCENE DETAILS, CHRONOLOGY IN ORDER TO INFER POSSIBLE BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS-INVESTIGATE PSYCHOLOGY OFFENDER TRY TO RELATE TO VICTIM WHICH CAN INDICATE PREVIOUS ATTEMPTS IN RELATIONSHIPS-DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, HOW MUCH DOMINANCE IS USED- HOW THEY INTERACT WITH PEOPLE EVERYDAY. CONSIDERATION OF ALL EVIDENCE LIKELY TO COMMIT IN A FAMILIAR AREA- ‘HOME RANGE’- PLACE CRIMES ON A MAP TO REVEAL PATTERNS AND SPECULATE ON WHERE HE WOULD LIVE PROFILE- LIVE IN KILBURN OR CRICKLEWOOD (DUFFY IN KILBURN) BE MARRIED WITH NO CHILDREN (DUFFY MARRIED WITH LOW SPERM COUNT) HAVE AN INTEREST IN MARTIAL ARTS (DUFFY SPENT A LOT OF TIME AT MARTIAL ARTS CLUB) FANTASIES ABOUT SEX, RAPE AND VIOLENCE (DUFFY COLLECTED HARD CORE PORN& TIED HIS WIFE UP IN SEX) SOUVENIOURS (KEYS FROM 33 VICTIMS) AGES OF 20-30 (DUFFY WAS 28) DUFFY ORGINALLY 1505 OUT OF 2000. ARRESTED FOR SUSPIOUS ACTIVITIES AND STRING AND SOUVENIOURS FOUND.

6. PERSUADUING A JURY- PENNINGTON AND HASTIE 130 STUDENTS FROM NORTHWESTERN UNI AND CHICAGO UNI WERE PAID TO PARTICIPATE IN AN HOUR LONG LAB EXPERIMENT ALLOCATED TO ONE OF FOUR CONDITIONS 1- STORY & STORY 2- STORY & WITNESS 3- WITNESS & STORY 4- WITNESS & WITNESS ALL PS LISTENED TO A TAPE RECORDING OF STIMULUS TRIAL, THEN ASKED TO RESPOND TO WRITTEN QUESTIONS AND DECIDE IF DEFENDANT WAS GUILTY OR NOT GUILTY AND RATE THEIR CONFIDENCE ON A FIVE POINT SCALE. PROSCUTION AND DEFENCE MORE LIKELY TO WIN WHEN THEY USE STORY ORDER AND THE OTHER USES WITNESS ORDER. GREATEST LEVEL OF CONFIDENCE IN VERDICTS WAS EXPRESSED BY THOSE WHO HEARD THE DEFENCE OR PROSECUTION IN STORY ORDER PRESENTING THE CASE IN STORY ORDER HAS A PERSUASIVE EFFECT. PERSUADING A JURY- CUTLER 538 UNDERGRADUATES FROM THE USA GIVEN EXTRA CREDITS TO TAKE PART LAB EXPERIMENT VIEWED A VIDEOTAPE MOCK TRIAL OF A ROBBERY IN SMALL GROUPS AND THEN INDEPENDANTLY ANSWERED A QUESTIONAIRE. FOUR INDEPENDENT VARIABLES-WITNESS IDENTIFYING CONDITIONS EITHER GOOD OR BAD, WITNESS CONFIDENCE EITHER 100% OR 80%, FORM OF TESTIMONY DESCRIPTIVE OR FIGURES, EXPERT OPINION. THEREFORE 8 CONDITIONS. QUESTIONAIRE CONTAINED THEIR VERDICT, A MEMORY TEST, RATING SCALES OF HOW CONFIDENT THEY WERE IN THEIR VERDICTS. JURORS VERDICTS- WHEN WIC WAS GOOD MORE GUILTY VERDICTS GIVEN AND INCREASED WHEN GIVEN A DESCRIPTIVE TESTIMONY JURORS MEMORY- 85% RECALLED THE TESTIMONY SO POOR MEMORY NOT BLAMED JURORS CONFIDENCE- GOOD IN THE GOOD WIC CONDITION. SHOWS THAT EXPERT TESTIMONY IMPROVED JURORS KNOWLEDGE AND MADE THEM PAY MORE ATTENTION TO WIC. MAY PREVENT MISCARRIAGE OF JUSTICE. PERSUADING A JURY- PICKEL 236 BALL STATE UNI VOLUNTEERED AS A COURSE REQUIREMENT LISTENED TO A AUDIO TAPE OF A MOCK TRIAL CRITICICAL EVIDENCE ABOUT THE DEFENDANT’S PRIOR CONVICTIONS WAS INTRODUCED ‘ACCIDENTLY’ BY A WITNESS, THIS WAS OBJECTED TO AND THE JUDGE RULED IT INADMISSABLE AND JURY SHOULD IGNORE IT 1- JUDGES RULING WAS FOLLOWED BY LEGAL EXPLANATION OF WHY TO IGNORE 2- JUDGES RULING HAD NO EXPLANATION CONTROL GROUP HEARD NO CRITICAL EVIDENCE PARTICIPANTS ASKED TO DECIDE THE VERDICT, PROBABLE GUILT OF THE DEFENDANT, RATE HOW THEIR KNOWLEDGE OF DEFENDANT AFFECTED THE DECISION, RATE CREDIBILITY OF THE WITNESS PS WHO HEARD THE EVIDENCE RULED INADMISSABLE BUT RECIEVED NO LEGAL EXPLANATION WERE ABLE TO IGNORE IT. PS WHO HEARD THE EVIDENCE AND RECIEVED A EXPLANATION WHY IT WAS INADMISSABLE WERE NOT ABLE TO IGNORE IT (55%) CREDITABILITY OF WITNESS & KNOWLEDGE OF PRIOR CONVICTIONS NO EFFECT. WITNESS APPEAL- CASTELLOW 71M/74F PSYCH STUDENTS FROM EAST CAROLINA UNI. LAB EXP IN MOCK TRIAL. BASED ON SEXUAL HARRASSMENT CASE. PS READ THE CASE WHICH HAD ACCOMPANING PHOTOS OF DEFENDANTS AND VICTIMS. PHOTOS USED HAD BEEN RATED INDEPENDENTLY BY A LARGE SCALE SAMPLE ON A 9 POINT SCALE- THE HIGHEST AND LOWEST SCORING PHOTOS WERE CHOOSEN INDEPENDANT MEASURES DESIGN. PICTURES WERE EITHER ATTRACTIVE DEFENDANT, UNATTRACTIVE VICTIM OR VICE VERSA. ATTRACTIVE DEFENDANT WITH AN ATTRACTIVE VICTIM- FEWER GUILTY VERDICTS (71% COMPARED TO 83% WHEN DEFENDANT WAS UNATTRACTIVE) ATTRACTIVE DEFENDANT WITH UNATTRACTIVE VICTIM- FEWER GUILTY VERDICTS (41% COMPARED TO 69% WHEN DEFENDANT WAS UNATTRACTIVE) NO GENDER DIFFERENCES LOOKS DO MATTER, WHEN A DEFENDANT IS ATTRACTIVE AND THE VICTIM ISNT! DEFENDANTS BEST ADVISED TO MAKE THE MOST OF THEIR APPEARANCE WHEN APPEARING IN COURT.

7. WITNESS APPEAL- PENROD AND CUTLER UNDERGRATUATES AND ELIGIBLE AND EXPERIENCED JURORS WATCHED VIDEOTAPE OF MOCK TRIAL OF A ROBBERY 10 VARIABLES WERE MANIPULATED- DISGUISE, WEAPON FOCUS, WITNESS CONFIDENCE EYEWITNESS IDENTIFICATION WAS KEY TO THE TRIAL- EITHER 80% OR 100% SURE 100% CONFIDENT- 67% CONVICTION 80% CONFIDENT- 60% CONVICTION THE MORE CONFIDENT THE WITNESS WAS THE MORE LIKELY THE JURY WERE TO BELIEVE THEM WITNESS APPEAL- ROSS 300 INTRODUCTORY PSYCH COLLEGE STUDENTS GENDER BALANCED INDEPENDANT MEASURES DESIGN MOCK TRIAL BASED ON ACTUAL COURT TRANSCRIPT. THREE VERSIONS FILMED BY FILM CREW AND ACTORS. CHILD ACTOR GAVE EVIDENCE IN OPEN COURT CHILD ACTOR GAVE EVIDENCE BEHIND A PROTECTIVE SHIELD CHILD ACTOR GAVE EVIDENCE VIA VIDEO LINK. 100 STUDENTS TO EACH CONDITION. WATCHED THE TWO HOUR FILM OF THE ALLEGED CHILD ABUSE CASE. JUDGE READ A WARNING NOT TO LET THE USE OF SCREEN/TAPE IMPLY GUILT PS ASKED FOR VERDICTS, CREDITABILITY OF DEFENDANT AND CHILD WITNESS TWO REAL ATTORNEYS GAVE ADVICE TO ENSURE TRIAL WAS ECOLOGICAL VALID NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 3 CONDITIONS. 59% F FOUND GUILTY COMPARED TO 39% M SAME PATTERN EMERGED FOR CREDIBILITY- FEMALES RATED CHILD MORE CREDITABLE. WHEN JUDGES WARNING GIVEN NO DISAVANTAGE IN COURT. REACHING A VERDICT- HASTIE APPLIED FINDINGS FROM SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH INTO GROUPS AND DECISION MAKING TO THE JURY PROCESS. DEVISED THREE STAGES- ORIENTATION, OPEN CONFRONTATION, RECONCILIATION ORIENTATION- RELAXED OPEN DISCUSSION, SET THE AGENDA, RAISE THE QUESTIONS AND EXPLORE THE FACTS, DIFFERENT OPINIONS ARISE OPEN- FIERCE DEBATE, FOCUS ON THE DETAIL, EXPLORE DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS, PRESSURE ON THE MINORITY TO CONFORM, SUPPORT FOR THE GROUP DECISION IS ESTABLISHED RECONCILIATION- ATTEMPTS TO SMOOTH OVER CONFLICTS, TENSION RELEASED THROUGH HUMOUR HASTIE BELIEVED THIS WAS THE SAME PROCESS USED FOR ANY BIG DECISION MAKING REACHING A VERDICT- ASCH 123 AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS AT HARVARD- VOLUNTEERS SHOWED A SERIES OF LINES TO PS SEATED AROUND A TABLE. 7-9 IN A GROUP BUT ONLY ONE WAS A NAIVE P, OTHERS WERE CONFEDERATES CONFEDERATES TOLD TO GIVE THE SAME INCORRECT ANSWER ON 12 CRITICAL TRIALS. 18 TRIALS WITH EACH P. FIRST TWO TRIALS CONFEDERATES ANSWERED CORRECTLY. CRUICAL MEASURE WAS HOW OFTEN NATIVE P GAVE THE SAME WRONG ANSWER AS THE CONFEDERATES. MEASURE OF CONFORMITY. 32% CONFORMITY RATE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES- NO ONE CONFORMED ON ALL TRIALS, 25% DIDNT CONFORM ONCE PS EXPERIENCED A LOT OF STRESS- NERVOUS LAUGHTER, FIDGETING CONTROL TRIAL PROVED PEOPLE DO MISTAKES ABOUT 1% OF THE TIME CRITICAL TRIALS SHOW IMPACT OF MAJORITY ON A INDIVIDUAL

8. REACHING A VERDICT- MOSCOVICI ALL PS WERE FEMALE DUE TO M THINKING THEY WOULD BE MORE INTERESTED IN A TASK IDENTIFYING COLOUR GIVEN A EYE TEST TO ENSURE NOT COLOUR BLIND, PLACED IN GROUPS OF 6, 4 PARTICIPANTS AND 2 CONFEDERATES SHOWN 36 SLIDES OF DIFFERENT SHADES OF BLUE AND STATE THE COLOUR OUT LOUD TOLD EXPERIMENT WAS ABOUT COLOUR PERCEPTION CONTROL GROUPS WITH NO CONFEDERATES FIRST PART THE CONFEDERATES WERE CONSISTENT ALWAYS ANSWERED GREEN SECOND PART WERE INCONSISTENT GREEN=24 AND BLUE=12 ONLY 0.25% OF THE CONTROL GROUPS ANSWERS WERE GREEN 1.25% ANSWERS WERE GREEN WITH INCONSISTENT MINORITY 8.42% ANSWERS WERE GREEN WITH CONSISTENT MINORITY MINORITIES CAN INFLUENCE THE MAJORITIES AND IS MORE SUCCESSFUL WHEN THEY ARE CONSISTENT. THE INCONSISTENT ANSWERS WERE LARGELY IGNORED BY THE MAJORITY. FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY REVISION CARDS HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY REVISION CARDS REACHING A VERDICT- REACHING A VERDICT EVALUATION- CONCURRENT VALIDITY- HASTIE COMPARED A META ANALYSIS OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH USEFULNESS- HELP JURIES TO MAKE THEIR DECISIONS BETTER THROUGH FOLLOWING THIS PROCESS OF DECISION MAKING, ASCH SHOWED HOW A JURYS DECISION MAY BE DUE TO CONFORMITY TO THE MAJORITY, MOSCOVICI SHOWED THAT JURYS MAY ALSO CONFORM TO THE MINORITY VERDICT ESPECIALLY WHEN THE MINORITY IS A SINGLE PERSON HOLISTIC- ASCH CAME UP WITH THREE REASONS WHY A JURY MAY CONFORM TO THE MAJORITY-  ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY- HASTIE DIDN’T USE REAL TRIALS INSTEAD USED MOCK TRIAL AND PREVIOUS RESEARCH TO CREATE HIS THEORY, HE DIDN’T TEST THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS ON A REAL JURY  REDUCTIONIST- HASTIE BELIEVED THAT THIS WAS THE WAY EVERY JURY MADE THEIR DECISIONS AND DIDN’T TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF CASES THEY MAY HAVE TO DECIDE UPON  ETHNOCENTRIC- ASH ONLY USED MALE PARTICIPANTS AND MOSCOVICI ONLY USED FEMALE PARTICIPANTS THIS MEANS THE STUDIES CANNOT BE GENERALISED TO THE OPPOSITE SEX  ETHICS- MOSCOVICI DECIEVED HIS PS INTO THINKING THEY WERE TAKING PART IN A LINES TEST. ASCH DECIEVED HIS PARTICIPANTS AND THEY EXPERIENCED A LOT OF STRESS WHICH WAS SHOWN THROUGH FIDGETING AND NERVOUS LAUGHTER

9. TURNING TO CRIME- UPBRINGING EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- SPECIFIES A CAUSE OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR SO NEW POLICIES AND INTERVENTION STATEGIES CAN BE CREATED TO STOP REOFFENDING OR OFFENDING BEFORE IT HAPPENS LONGITUDINAL STUDIES- (FARRINGTON) REDUCTIONIST- (WIKSTROM AND TAFEL) IS LESS REPRESENTATIVE AS IT CONSIDERS ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS USE OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA- ALLOWS COMPARISONS AND INSIGHT INTO WHY CRIMES ARE COMMITED  UNREPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE- (FARRINGTON) ANDROCENTRIC, NOT REPRESENTATIVE OF ALL CRIMINALS  REDUCTIONIST- ONLY BELIEVES THAT UPBRINGING CAUSES CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR DOESN’T INVESTIGATE ANY OTHER FACTORS SUCH AS BIOLOGICAL OR COGNITIVE  DOESN’T EXPLAIN INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CRIMINAL THINKING OR BEHAVIOUR (SUTHERLAND)  SNAPSHOT STUDY ONLY SHOWS THE PS AT ONE POINT IN TIME AND PEOPLE MAY CHANGE OVER TIME (WIKSTROM AND TAFEL) TURNING TO CRIME- COGNITIVE EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- IDENTIFIED ERRORS IN THINKING THAT ARE COMMON AMONG CRIMINALS WHICH CAN BE TARGETED IN TREATMENT (Y&S) TREATING CRIMINALS TO ADJUST THE WAY THEY SEE THE WORLD DUE TO THEIR LACK OF MORALITY WOULD HELP CHANGE THEIR BEHAVIOUR LONGITUNDIAL- (Y&S) LONGITUDINAL OVER 14 YEARS GIVES A RICH INSIGHT INTO THE CRIMINALS AND THEIR CHANGING BEHAVIOUR  REDUCTIONIST- ONLY FOCUSES ON THE FAULTY COGNITION AND TURNING TO CRIME RATHER THAN INCLUDING ANY BIOLOGICAL/ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS  UNREPRESENTATIVE- ANDROCENTRIC AS NO BOYS ARE INCLUDED IN THE SAMPLE, THEREFORE CANT GENERALISE TO FEMALES.  SOCIAL DESIRABLITY- USE OF QUESTIONAIRS AND INTERVIEWS CREATE SOCIAL DESIRABLITY WHICH CAN AFFECT THE VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH SHOWING CRIMINAL THINKING PATTERNS MAY NOT BE A TRUE REFLECTION  BRAIN SCANS AND SCIENTIFIC MEASURES ARE DIFFICULT TO INTERPRET  ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY- ANSWERING MORAL DILEMMAS IS NOT REPRESENTATIVE OF THE MOMENT OF A CRIME, AND MAY NOT REFLECT WHAT YOU’D REALLY DO IN A CRIME DUE TO SOCIAL DESIRABLITY TURNING TO CRIME-BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- HIGHLIGHTS POSSIBLE BRAIN DEFICITS WHICH CERTAIN CHEMICALS IN THE BRAIN THAT CAN LEAD TO AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR AND CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR- ALLOWS FOR TREATMENT TO BE DEVELOPED TO BALANCE OUT SEROTONIN LEVELS LARGE SAMPLE USED- (DALY AND WILSON) HOLISTIC- (DALY AND WILSON) FOCUSES ON THE BIOLOGICAL FACTOR OF BEING MALE BUT ALSO THAT THEY WERE FROM DISADVANTAGED NEIGHBOURHOODS AND THOSE WHO DROPPED OUT OF SCHOOL.- OFFERING A MORE DETAILED EXPLANATION OF TURNING TO CRIME NATURE/NURTURE- BRUNNER CLAIMS NATURE HAS A GREATER INFLUENCE ON CRIMINALS  REDUCTIONIST- ONLY BLAMING BIOLOGICAL FACTORS NO OTHERS  LACK OF ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY- LAB ENVIRONMENTS AND THE PRESSING OF A BUTTON EVERY TIME A 0 FLASHES ON SCREEN HARDLY REPRESENTS OR STIMULATES THE CRIMINAL MIND TO THAT OF WHAT IT IS WHEN COMMITTING A CRIME  UNETHICAL- STOPS SCHIZOPHENIC PATIENTS/CRIMINALS TAKING THEIR MEDICATIION TWO WEEKS PRIOR TO THE EXPERIMENT- POTENTIAL HARM  BRAIN SCANS AND SCIENTIFIC MEASURES ARE DIFFICULT TO INTERPRET  UNREPRESENTATIVE- (RAINE) BASED ON MURDERERS AND MAY NOT GIVE EXPLANATION FOR SMALLER CRIMINALS SUCH AS PETTY THEIFS  ANDROCENTRIC- DOESN’T GIVE EXPLANATIONS FOR WHY FEMALES TURN TO CRIME (DALY AND WILSON) MAKING A CASE- INTERVIEWING WITNESSES EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- IDENTIFIES THAT WHEN USING PHOTO IDENTIFICATION WITH WITNESSES, THEY SHOULD BE SHOWN THE WHOLE FACE OR EXTERNAL COMPOSITES IN ORDER TO GET THE CORRECT IDENTIFICATION (BRUCE) HIGHLIGHTS EWT RELIABILITY DECREASES IN THE PRESENCE OF A WEAPON, CONVICTIONS SHOULDN’T BE BASED ON THE EWT ALONE (LOFTUS) LAB EXPERIMENT- ALLOWS HIGH CONTROLS OVER THE VARIABLES AND INCREASES THE VALIDITY OF THE RESEACH AND INCREASES THE RELIABLITY DUE TO STANDARDISED PROCEDURES. THE PARTICIPANTS WERE NOT SUBJECT TO DISTRESS LIKE THEY WOULD IF A REAL CRIMINAL PULLED A GUN (LOFTUS) ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY (FISHER) REAL DETECTIVES USING REAL WITNESSES TO REAL CRIMES AND THE TECHNIWUES OF COGNITIVE INTERVIEW VS STANDARD  SAMPLE IS ALL STUDENTS SO NOT REPRESENTATIVE OF THE GENERAL POPULATION ESPECIALLY AS STUDENTS HAVE BETTER MEMORIES AND ARE BETTER AT RECALLING INFORMATION (BRUCE)  ETNOCENTRIC AS ALL FROM THE USA- UK GUNS ARENT LEGALISED TO THE RESPONSE MAY BE DIFFERENT/ LONGER TIME STARING AT THE GUN RATHER THAN SUSPECT  LACK OF ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY- LOOKING AT PHOTOS OF WELL KNON CELEBRITIES ISNT THE SAME AS A STRANGER COMMITTING A CRIME THERE ARE ALSO OTHER VARIABLES IN CRIMES SUCH AS WEAPON FOCUS AND STRESS THAT SHOULD BE ACCOUNTED FOR (BRUCE)

10. MAKING A CASE- INTERVIEWING SUSPECTS EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- (GUDJOHNSSON) LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF PACE WHICH STATES THAT ALL INTERVIEWS MUST BE RECORDED IN TRIPUCATE, ONE FOR POLICE, LAWYERS AND COURTS, ALSO SHOWS THAT EVEN THOUGH POLICE USE LESS INTERROGATIVE STYLES THEY SHOULD STILL BE AWARE OF SOME INDIVIDUALS WHO ARE SUGGESTIBLE IE THE YOUNG- SOME PEOPLE ARE MORE VULNERABLE, BEST LIE DETECTORS NOTED ON STORY CUES SO TRAINING COULD BE GIVEN TO MAKE THEM MORE AWARE ECOLOGICALLY VALID- REAL POLICE WATCHING REAL SUSPECT INTERVIEWS, COULD PICK UP ON BOTH STORY AND BEHAVIOURAL CUES AS THEY WERE WATCHING SUSPECTS  UNRELIABLE- A CASE STUDY SO IT CANT BE REPLICATED AND ALSO IT ONLY FOCUSES ON ONE PERSON EACH FALSE CONFESSION MAY BE DIFFERENT SOME PEOPLE MAY FALSELY CONFESS TO PROTECT SOMEONE NOT JUST BECAUSE THEY ARE SUGGESTIBLE  UNVALID- INBAU- TECHNQUE OF GAINING A CONFESSION IS NOT ESTABLISHING THE TRUTH AND THE CRIMINAL IS NOT GIVEN THE CHANCE TO DEFEND THEMSELVES WHICH COULD LEAD TO FALSE CONFESSIONS  UNETHICAL- (INBAU) PROBLEMATIC FOR THE VULNERABLE AND MENTALLY ILL AS THEY MAY FIND THE PRESSURE OF THE INTERROGATION TOO MUCH TO HANDLE. ITS STRESSFUL CAUSING PEOPLE TO CRY- NOT ADMIT GUILT OR MAY CRY DUE TO NERVES OR PRESSURE  ETHNOCENTRIC- (MANN) ALL FROM KENT NOT REPRESENATIVE OF ALL POLICE AND THE MET OR THE FBI MAY HAVE DIFFERENT METHODS OF DETECTING LIES MAKING A CASE- CREATING A PROFILE EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- CREATING OFFENDER PROFILES IS BECOMING A USEFUL TOOL FOR THE POLICE AND IS BECOMING MORE SUCCESSFUL IN FINDING OUT THE PROFILE OF AN INDIVIDUAL HOLISTIC- TAKES INTO ACCOUNT ALL FACTORS SUCH AS THE BIOLOGICAL BLOOD GROUP, LOCATION, FORENSIC EVIDENCE ALONG WITH BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS BOTTOM UP APPROACH IS OBJECTIVE FROM THE TOP DOWN APPROACH AS IT FOCUSES ON AND IS BASED ON DATA ANALYSIS AND A THEORETRICAL BASIS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR. RELIES HEAVIL ON COMPUTER DATABASES WHICH ARE ACCURATE, POWERFUL AND RELIABLE  GENERALISABILTY- POSSIBLY ONLY USEFUL FOR SERIAL OR UNUSAL CRIMES AS IT RELIES ON PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR FROM AN INDIVIDUAL (CANTER AND HERITAGE) NOT APPLICABLE TO ALL TYPES OF CRIME SUCH AS PETTY CRIMES.  VALIDITY- MAY ONLY BE USEFUL FOR THE PEOPLE WHO HAVE ALREADY BEEN CONVICTED, YOU CANT GET THE INFORMATION ON SOMEONE TO COMPARE IF THEY ARENT ON THE DATABASE  CANTER AND HERITAGE- VALIDITY, IT IS PURELY CORRELATIONAL AND SO CAUSE AND EFFECT CANT BE ESTABLISHED. REACHING A VERDICT- PERSUADING A JURY EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- HIGHLIGHTS TO THE PROSECUTION AND DEFENCE TEAMS THAT THE JURY ARE MORE LIKELY TO SIDE WITH A GUILT VERDICT WHEN INFORMATION WAS PRESENTED IN STORY ORDER, AND SO THEY SHOULD PRESENT THE EVIDENCE IN THIS ORDER FOR A HIGHER CHANCE OF WINNING THE CASE(P&H) HIGHLIGHTS THAT IF AN EXPERT WITNESS SAYS THE EYEWITNESS IS BAD THEN JURYS ARE MORE LIKELY TO BELIEVE THIS AND CHANGE THEIR VERDICT (CUTLER) HIGHLIGHTS THAT JUDGES SHOULD GIVE NO EXPLANATION TO WHY A PIECE OF EVIDENCE IS RULED INADMISSABLE TO GIVE A FAIR VERDICT USE OF THE LAB ENVIRONMENT ALLOWS FOR CONTROL OVER EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES AND IS EASY TO REPLICATE AND HIGH IN RELIABLITY, THE HIGH CONTROL IN CUTLER OVER THE FOUR IV’S ALLOWS RESEARCHERS TO INVESTIGATE THE EFFECTS OF EXPERT WITNESS. ALLOWED RESEARCHERS TO INVESTIGATE EFFECTS OF INADMISSABLE EVIDENCE  LACK OF ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY- A MOCK TRIAL OF JURORS LISTENING TO A RECORDED TRIAL IS NOT THE SAME AS BEING ON A REAL JURY IN A REAL TRIAL, PARTICPANTS ARE UNABLE TO READ BODY LANGUAGE OR OTHER CUES THAT MAY AFFECT THEIR VERDICT SUCH AS CRYING (P&H) (CUTLER)  UNREPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE- UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS ARE NOT REPRESENTATIVE OF SOCIETY AS A WHOLE AND THEREFORE MAY NOT BE TRUE OF HOW EVERYONE RESPONDS TO INFORMATION PRESENTED IN STORY/WITNESS ORDER. PS WERE ALSO PAID WHICH COULD BE AN INCENTIVE TO BE MORE ATTENTIVE THAN A NORMAL JURY REACHING A VERDICT- WITNESS APPEAL EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- HIGHLIGHTS THAT DEFENDANTS SHOULD MAKE THE EFFORT TO LOOK APPROCHABLE FOR THEIR APPEARANCE IN COURT DUE TO THE HALO EFFECT (CASTELLOW) INFORMS JURORS THAT THERE IS NO RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CONFIDENCE OF WITNESSES AND HOW ACCURATE THEIR TESTIMONY IS. (ROSS) PROTECTIVE SHIELDS CAN BE USED AS THEY DON’T AFFECT THE VERDICT GIVEN AND DON’T BIAS THE CASE SAMPLE- (PENROD AND CUTLER) REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE OF MIXED BACKGROUND USE OF BOTH STUDENTS AND EXPERIENCED JURORS ALONG WITH THOSE ELIDIGLE (ROSS) LARGE GENDER BALANCED SAMPLE ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY- ROSS WAS BASED ON A REAL LIFE TRANSCRIPT NOT A FAKE TRIAL  GENERALISABLITY- DUE TO THE NATURE OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT CASES IT WOULD BE ASSUMED THAT ATTRACTIVENESS DOES PLAY APART HOWEVER IT WOULD BE QUESTIONABLE IF IT COULD BE REPRESENTATIVE OF OTHER TYPES OF CRIMES  SAMPLE- BIASED SAMPLE OF PSYCHOLOGY STUDENTS NOT THE TARGET POPULATION OF A JURY. ATTRACTIVENESS MAY BE MORE IMPORTANT TO STUDENTS THAN OLDER PS  REDUCTIONIST- ONLY CONSIDERS CONFIDENCE OF WITNESSES DOESN’T CONSIDER INDIVUAL DIFFERENCES.  ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY- USE OF A MOCK TRIAL RATHER THAN A REAL TRIAL.  PROTECTION FROM HARM- CHILD ACTORS COULD BE AFFECTED BY ABUSE CASE THEY HAVE TO ACT OUT.

11. STRESS- CAUSES OF STRESS EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- CAN BE USED TO HELP COMPANIES CHANGE THE NATURE OF WORK THEIR EMPLOYEES DO, ROTATING WORKERS BETWEEN HIGH RISK AND LOW RISK WILL REDUCE SICK DAYS AND BENEFIT THE BUSINESS. KANNER HIGHLIGHTS THAT LITTLE STRESSORS ARE BIGGER CONTRIBUTORS TO STRESS THAN LIFE EVENTS ETHICS- THE WORKERS WERE DOING THEIR NORMAL JOBS AND WERE NOT EXPOSED TO ANY EXTRA HARM OR DISTRESS (G+M) HARD TO MANIPULATE RESPONSES TO STRESS BUT CARRYING OUT A REAL CAR CRASH IS MORE UNETHICAL THAN ONLY SHOWING A PHOTO  UNREPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE- (JOHANSSON) ONLY SWEDISH PEOPLES WERE USED, OTHER CULTURES MAY HAVE DIFFERENT WORK ETHICS. KANNER ONLY USED AMERICANS AND OTHER CULTURES MAY HAVE DIFFERENT STRESS ETHICS  REDUCTIONIST- (JOHANSSON) CLAIM THAT WORK IS THE ONLY CAUSE OF STRESS NOT OTHER FACTORS IN THEIR LIVES, (KANNER) DID NOT CONSIDER THAT PEOPLE DEAL WITH STRESS DIFFERENTLY  ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY- GEER AND MAISEL DIDN’T USE A TRUE TO LIFE SITUATION AS THEY WERE ONLY PICTURES OF DEAD VICTIMS NOT REAL LIFE VICTIMS AND THEY COULD EASILY LOOK AWAY IN REAL LIFE AND NOT BE FORCED TO LOOK STRESS- MEASURING STRESS EVALUATION- OBJECTIVE AND SCIENTIFIC- GSR TAKES A MACHINE MEASUREMENT AND IS HIGHLY RELIABLE, AND REGARDLESS HOW MANY TIMES IT IS USED IT GIVES THE SAME RESULTS. DUE TO THE SAME PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES BEING USED IT IS EASY TO REPLICATE THE CONDITIONS AND USE THE GSR MACHINES TO MEASURE STRESS HOLISTIC MEASURES- JOHANSSON USED COMBINED APPROACH GIVING A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF WHY A INDIVIDUAL IS STRESSED  NO CAUSE AND EFFECT IS ESTABLISHED FROM THE PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES- THERE IS NO REASON FOR WHY A PEOPLE FEELS STRESSED ONLY THAT THEY ARE STRESSED (G+M)  USING PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES IS EXPENSIVE AND REQUIRES STAFF TO MONITOR WHICH THEN BECOMES EXPENSIVE. JOHANSSON IS ALSO EXPENSIVE THROUGH THE USE OF COMBINED APPROACH AND THE URINE TESTS, VERY TIME CONSUMING TO COMPARE DATA COLLECTED AND ANALYSE RESULTS STRESS- MANAGING STRESS EVALUATION ETHICAL- ALL THE PS RECIEVED THEREAPY AFTER THE EXPERIMENT HAD HAPPENED USEFULNESS- THERE ARE PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR NEW THERAPIES TO BE DEVELOPED TO HELP REDUCE STRESS, ALSO HELP CANCER SUFFERERS ENSURING PEOPLE GET THE SUPPORT THEY NEED TO HELP CURE THEIR CANCER- DEVELOP SUPPORT GROUPS LARGE SAMPLES- W-M USED 133 PARTICIPANTS  UNREPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE- ALL THE PARTICIPANTS IN M’S STUDY WERE STUDENTS WHO WERE BETWEEN THE AGES OF 17 AND 25, W-M ALSO ONLY USED FEMALE PS WITH BREAST CANCER, NO OTHER TYPES OF CANCER AND NO MALES WERE INCLUDED ALSO ONLY FROM VANCOUVER  UNETHICAL- THE CONTROL GROUPS WERE DEPRIVED OF TREATMENT AND FORCED TO WAIT FOR THEIR TREATMENT WHICH COULD HAVE INCREASED ANXIETY LEVELS  DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS- THOSE WHO RECIEVED THE TREATMENTS MAY HAVE FELT OBLIGED TO SAY THAT THEY HELPED AND WORKED WHEN REALLY THEY DIDNT. HEALTHY LIVING- MEASURES OF HEALTH PROMOTION EVAULATION- LARGE SAMPLES- BECKER USED 111 MOTHERS USEFULNESS- SUPPORTS THE HBM HOLISTIC- ALTHOUGH HBM IS COGNITIVE MODEL IT INCLUDES ALL FACTORS OF BEHAVIOUR, EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CLASS IN THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS, SELF EFFICACY IS BOTH COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIOURAL  NO CAUSE AND EFFECT IS ESTABLISHED- ONLY SHOWS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CERTAIN FACTORS OF THE MOTHERS LIFES AND THEIR LIKLIHOOD OF ADHERENCE NO ACTUAL REASONS ARE ESTBALISHED  NO MALES WERE INCLUDED IN BECKERS STUDY TO SUPPORT HBM  NOMOTHETIC- THE HBM PRESUMES WE ARE ALL THE SAME  INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES- ROTTERS TEST COULD BE INFLUENCE BY THE PARTICPANTS POLITICAL STANCE RATHER THAN WHETHER THEY ARE IN/EX  SOCIAL DESIRABILITY- USE OF SELF REPORT (BECKER) AND QUESTIONAIRES (ROTTER)

12. HEALTHY LIVING- THEORIES OF HEALTHY LIVING EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- LEGISLATION IS EFFECTIVE AS THE NUMBER OF CHILDREN WEARING HELMETS IN HOWARD ROSE FROM 11% TO 38%, J&F FOUND THAT THE MOST EFFECTIVE METHOD OF HEALTH PROMOTION IS THROUGH THE USE OF FEAR ETHICS- THE PARENTS CONSENTED FOR THE CHILDREN TO BE INVOLVED CONTROLS- USE OF CONTROLS OVER WHAT EACH STATE HAD IN PLACED ALLOWED FOR CAUSE AND EFFECT TO BE ESTABLISHED, ALSO HIGH CONTROLS OVER THE LECTURES THE STUDENTS RECIEVED LARGE SAMPLE- AN ENTIRE YEAR WAS USED TO TEST HOW FEAR IMPROVED HEALTH BEHAVIOURS  RESPONSE RATE- D HAD A 48% RESPONSE RATE WHICH COULD BIAS RESULTS  LAWS ARE DIFFICULT TO ENFORCE AND SOME ARE OFTEN IGNORED  D- THERE WAS AN INCREASED TREND IN BIKE HELMET USE ANYWAY WHICH SHOWS THAT THE LEGISLATION HAD A LIMITED IMPACT  UNETHICAL- ENDUCING FEAR IS UNETHICAL AND THE PS HAD NOT CONSENTED TO BE SCARED, SOME PS MAY HAVE BEEN HIGHLY DISTRESSED BY THE LECTURES  INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES- SOME PEOPLE ARE MORE EFFECTED BY FEAR THAN OTHERS SO IT WILL HAVE A VARIED EFFECT HEALTHY LIVING- ADHEREANCE TO MEDICAL REGIMES EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- BF- INFORMS DOCTORS THAT PAITENTS WITH ASYMPTOMATIC CONDITIONS ARE LESS LIKELY TO ADHERE TO MEDICAL REGIMES AND ENFORCES THE IMPORTANCE OF EXPLAINING THE TABLETS AND SIDE EFFECTS CONCURRENT VALIDITY- BF USE OF SECONDARY SOURCES SCIENTIFIC- LUST- PS CANT CHANGE THE RESULTS TO CHANGE THEIR ADHERENCE SO THE RESULTS ARE VALID HIGH IN ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY- WATT TESTED IN CHILDRENS OWN HOMES WITH THEIR NORMAL SETTINGS AND MEDICAL REGIME FOR ASTHMA  REDUCTIONIST- PEOPLE MAY FORGET TO TAKE PILLS DUE TO THE ASYMPTOMATIC CONDITON NOT DUE TO SIDE EFFECTS?  ETHICS- SOME PS DID NOT RECIEVE ANY TREATMENT UNTIL AFTER THE EXPERIMENT HAD ENDED DUE TO BEING GIVEN A PLACEBO DRUG  LUST- ONLY SHOWED THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIABETICS AND DEPRESSION NOT OTHER ILLNESSES AND OTHER ADHERENCES TO MEDICIAL REGIMES  UNGENERALISABLE- ONLY AUSTRALIAN CHILDREN UNDER 6 WERE TESTED BY WATT  METHOD- REPEATED MEASURES LEADS TO ORDER EFFECTS AND POSSIBLY DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS IF THEY KNOW THE AIM OF THE STUDY, ONLY TESTING FOR ONE WEEK ALSO COULD EXPLAIN ADHERENCE AS MORE LIKELY TO ADHERE TO SOMETHING NEW TIL THE ATTRACTION DIES DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- DIAGNOISIS EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- BOTH THE ICD AND THE DSM ARE RECOGNISED DIAGNOSIS MANUALS THAT ARE USED BY DOCTORS AND HEALTH PROFESSIONALS TO DIAGNOSE DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR RELIABILITY-GOLDSTEIN WAS ABLE TO REDIAGNOIS 199 PAITENTS WITH AN UPDATED DSM AND FOUND CONSISTANT RESULTS RELIABILITY- STINCHFIELD WAS ABLE TO ESTABLISH GAMBLERS AND NON GAMBLERS THROUGH THE USE OF THE DSM  LIMITATIONS- ITS HARD TO DIAGNOSE PEOPLE WHO ARE SUFFERING FROM CO-MORBIDITY WHEN USING THE DSM  REDUCTIONIST- ITS REDUCTIONIST TO BREAKDOWN A CONDITIONINTO A SERIES OF CONDITIONS AND ONE ULTIMATE DIAGNOSIS  ROSENHAN- HEALTHY PS WERE MISDIAGNOISED WITH THE DSM AS HAVING SCHIZOPHRENIA DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- EXPLANATIONS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR USEFUL APPLICATIONS- HIGHLIGHTS THE IMPORTANCE OF GENES SCREENINGS FOR POTENTIAL CARRIERS OF DISORDERS ( G-S) SAMPLE- LARGE SAMPLES WERE USED (G-S) WHICH INCREASED THE VALIDITY OF THE RESULTS TO SHOW THE DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF DISORDERS DUE TO GENES  CASE STUDIES HAVE LIMITATIONS AS YOU CANT GENERALISE FINDINGS TO A WIDER POPULATION ONLY FROM ONE P  BEHAVIOURIST-(W-R) IT IGNORES THE MIND AND THE BODY AND WHILE BEHAVIOURIST TREATMENTS WORK FOR PHOBIAS THEY MAY BE LESS USEFUL WITH CONDITIONS SUCH AS SCHIZOPHRENIA  REDUCTIONISM- EACH APPROACH TO EXPLAINING DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR ONLY LOOKS AT THEIR EXPLANATION- GS ONLY LOOKE D AT GENETIC FACTORS ETC.  NO CAUSE AND EFFECT COULD BE ESTABLISHED FROM G-S DUE TO IT BEING A CORRELATION BETWEEN THE TWO VARIABLES  ETHICS- SUBJECTED A 11 MONTH OLD TO EXTREME EMOTIONAL DISTRESS

13. DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- TREATMENTS EVALUATION- USEFULNESS- DRUG TREATMENTS HAVE RAPID RESULTS AND ARE EASY TO ADMINSTER ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY- LUCY WAS ALREADY SUFFERING FROM A PHOBIA AND SO NOTHING WAS MANIPULATED AND THE TREATMENT WAS SUCCESSFUL RELIABILITY- SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION CAN BE EASILY REPLICATED FOR VARIOUS PHOBIAS TO TEST EFFECTIVENESS  REDUCTIONIST- EACH APPROACH ONLY CONSIDERS ITS OWN FACTORS, DRUG TREATMENTS IGNORE COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIOURAL FACTORS  ETHICS- SOME DRUG TREATMENTS HAVE UNPLEASANT SIDE EFFECTS AND SOME CONDITIONS MAY NOT ALLOW PS TO GIVE CONSENT TO TREATMENT AND THEY ARE UNABLE TO UNDERSTAND THE DRUG AND ITS IMPLICATIONS DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- ICD AND DSM COMPARISONS SIMILARITIES- BOTH ARE DIAGNOSIS AND CATEGORISING MANUALS WHICH REQUIRE TWO OR MORE SYMPTOMS TO BE PRESENT IN ORDER FOR A DIAGNOSIS TO BE MADE THEY ARENT SELF-DIAGNOSIS MANUALS AND ARE INTENDED TO BE USED BY QUALIFIED HEALTH PROFESSIONALS BOTH ARE OFFICALLY RECOGNISED MANUALS TO DIAGNOSE MENTAL HEALTH DIFFERENCES- DSM REQUIRES THE PSYCHIATRIST TO EVALUATE THE PATIENT IN 5 AXES WHILST HE ICD IS MORE SYMPTOM BASED AND ALSO INCLUDED MORE GROUPS OF MENTAL DISORDERS WHAT IT INCLUDES- THE ICD IS LARGER AND ENCOMPASSES ALL DISORDERS, WHILE THE DSM ONLY HAS CHAPTER 5 SPECIFICALLY FOR THE MENTAL DISORDERS ICD USED INTERNATIONALLY WHILE DSM ONLY IN US BRITISH RESEARCH TENDS TO USE DSM TO FIT AMERICAN RESEARCH DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- ICD AND DSM COMPARISONS GOLDSTEIN 1988- RELIABLITY OF DSM- REDIAGNOSED 199 PATIENTS USING DSM3 ORGINALLY DIAGNOSED WITH DSM2 ALTHOUGH SOME DIFFERENCES 85% CONSISTENT. ALSO ASKED OTHER EXPERTS TO, TO COMPARE. STINCHFIELD 2003- DSM WAS ABLE TO ESTABLISH THE GAMBLERS FROM THE NON-GAMBLERS THOSE WITH PATHOLOGICAL GAMBLING- VALID AS IT IS TESTING WHAT IT SHOULD BE TESTING ROSENHANN 1973- DIAGNOSIS THE SAME ACROSS 12 DIFFERENT HOSPITALS THROUGH THE USE OF DSM SO COULD STATE IT IS RELIABLE HOWEVER BECAUSE THE DIAGNOSIS OF HEALTHY PS WAS SCHIZOPHRENIA IT COULD LACK VALIDITY DUE TO NOT TRULY DIAGNOSING WHAT IT SHOULD BE WEAKNESS- HARD TO DIAGNOSE PEOPLE WHO ARE SUFFERING FROM MORE THAN ONE CONDITION (CO-MORBIDITY) CONSIDERED TO BE REDUCTIONIST TO BREAK DOWN A CONDITION INTO A SERIES OF CONDITIONS ICDDSM USED INTERNATIONALLYUSED IN USA INCLUDES 11 CATEGORIESINCLUDES 16 CATEGORIES INCLUDES BOTH BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DISEASES ONLY HAS PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS VERSION 10VERSON 5 MORE REDUCTIONISTMULTI-AXAL- THEREFORE MORE HOLISTIC IS FREEMAKE PROFIT FROM THE BOOK DIFFERENT DEGREES OF SEVERITY RECOGNISED FOR SAME CATEGORY ALL DISORDERS EITHER PRESENT OR ABSENT

14. STRESS- WORK JOHANSSON 24 WORKERS IN SWEDISH SAW MILL QUASI EXPERIMENT – WORKERS HIGH RISK (14 MEN ON PRODUCTION LINE) LOW RISK/CONTROL (10 MAINTAINANCE MEN AND CLEANERS) DATA COLLECTED THROUGH MEASURES OF CHEMICALS IN URINE AND SELF REPORT OF MOOD EACH P WAS ASKED TO GIVE A DAILY URINE SAMPLE WHEN THEY ARRIVED AT WORK AND FOUR OTHER TIMES IN THE DAY- BODY TEMP ALSO TAKEN GAVE SELF REPORTS OF MOOD AND ALTERTNESS PLUS CAFFEINE AND NICOTINE CONSUMPTION CATECHOLAMINE LEVELS IN URINE MEASURED HIGH RISK- ADRENALINE LEVELS TWICE AS HIGH AS THEIR BASELINE AND INCREASED THROUGHOUT THE DAY. ALSO FELT MORE RUSHED AND IRRITATED LOW RISK- PEAK LEVEL OF 1 ½ BASELINE IN THE MORNING AND DECLINED THROUGH THE DAY. REPETITIVE, MACHINE PACED WORK CONTIBUTED TO HIGHER STRESS LEVELS STRESS- LIFE HASSLES KANNER REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN- EACH P COMPLETED THE HASSLES RATING SCALE AND THE LIFE EVENTS SCALE ASSESSED THEIR PSYCHOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS OF STRESS USING HOPKINS SYMPTOM CHECKLIST AND BRADBURN MORALE SCALE 100 PS WHO HAD PREVIOUSLY COMPLETED A SURVEY IN 1965 ON HEALTH 209 ORIGINALLY CONTACTED- 109 AGREED – 9 DROPPED OUT HASSLES WERE CONSISTENT FROM MONTH TO MONTH MENS LIFE HASSLES POSITIVELY CORRELATED WITH HASSLES AND NEGATIVELY WITH UPLIFTS WOMENS LIFE EVENTS POSITIVELY CORRELATED WITH HASSLES AND UPLIFTS HASSLES ARE A MORE POWERFIL PREDICTOR OF PHYSIOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS WHATEVER LIFE EVENTS OCCUR STRESS- LACK OF CONTROL GEER AND MAISEL LAB EXPERIMENT PS WERE SHOWN PHOTOS OF DEAD CAR CRASH VICTIMS AND THEIR STRESS LEVELS WERE MEASURED BY GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE MACHINES AND HEART RATE ELECTRODES (LATER DISGARDED) 60 UNDERGRADS FROM NEW YORK UNI INDEPENDENT MEASURES DESIGN- RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO 1 OF 3 CONDITIONS 1- ACTUAL CONTROL OVER HOW LONG THEY SAW EACH PICTURE 2- SAW PHOTOS EXACTLY THE SAME AMOUNT OF TIME BUT WARNED BEFORE THE PHOTO APPEARED BY 10 SEC WARNING-60 SECONDS APART- NO CONTROL BUT KNEW WHAT WAS GOING TO HAPPEN 3-TOLD THEY WOULD SEE PHOTOS AND HEAR TONES BUT NO CONTROL WHILE MACHINE CALIBRATED A BASELINE MEASUREMENT WAS TAKEN GSR TAKEN ON THE ONSET OF THE TONE, DURING SECOND HALF OF TONE AND IN RESPONSE TO PHOTO PREDICTABILITY GROUP SHOWED MOST STRESS DUE TO LACK OF CONTROL (2) CONTROL (1) EXPERIENCED LESS STRESS AS THEY HAD CONTROL STRESS- MEASURING STRESS PSYCHOLOGICAL HOLMES AND RAHE / KANNER SELF REPORT/INTERVIEWS/DIARY KEEPING GIVES AN INSIGHT AND CAUSE FOR WHY THE PARTICIPANTS ARE FEELING STRESSED

15. STRESS- MEASURING STRESS PHYSIOLOGICAL GEER AND MAISEL PHYSICALLY MEASURING STRESS. LOOKING AT THE BODY’S RESPONSE TO STRESS. SKIN RESPONSE- GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE MACHINE BODY TEMPERATURE ADRENELINE MEASURES STRESS- MEASURING STRESS COMBINED APPROACH JOHANSSON USING BOTH THE PHYSICAL MEASURES AND PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASURES SUCH AS THE SELF REPORTS IN ORDER TO MEASURE STRESS. ALLOWS MORE DATA TO BE COLLECTED INCREASES VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY MAKES LINKS BETWEEN DATA TO SUPPORT FINDINGS STRESS- MANAGING STRESS/COGNITIVE MEICHENBAUM FIELD EXPERIMENT- ASSESSED BEFORE AND AFTER TREATMENT BLIND SITUATION- PSYCHOLOGISTS DIDN’T KNOW WHICH CONDITION PS IN 21 STUDENTS WHO RESPONDED TO AD FOR TREATMENT OF TEST ANXIETY MATCHED PAIRS DESIGN WITH RANDOM ALLOCATION 1- SIT: GIVEN 8 THERAPY SESSIONS. POSITIVE STATEMENTS AND RELAXATION TECH 2- SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION: 8 THERAPY SESSIONS WITH RELAXATION TECH AND TOLD TO PRACTICE AT HOME 3- CONTROL: TOLD THEY WERE ON A WAITING LIST PERFORMANCE ON TESTS IMPROVED IN THE SIT GROUP ALTHOUGH THERE WAS A SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO GROUPS AND CONTROL GROUP PS IN SIT GROUP SHOWED MORE IMPROVEMENTS IN THEIR ANXIETY LEVELS BUT BOTH SHOWED OVERALL IMPROVEMENT COMPARED TO CONTROL SIT IS AN EFFECTIVE WAY OF REDUCING ANXIETY ESPECIALLY IN STUDENTS PRONE TO TEST ANXIETY- MORE EFFECTIVE THAN BEHAVIOURAL TECHNIQUES STRESS-MANAGING STRESS/BEHAVIOURAL - BUDZYNSKI 18 PARTICIPANTS – 2M/16F, VOLUNTEERS FROM LOCAL NEWSPAPER AD, SCREENED BY TELEPHONE AND THEN UNDERWENT PSYCHIATRIC AND MEDICAL EXAMINATIONS TO ENSURE NO OTHER REASON FOR HEADACHES INDEPENDENT MEASURES DESIGN- RANDOMLY ALLOCATED TO 1 OF 3 GROUPS A- HAD BIOFEEDBACK WITH RELAXATION TRAINING AND EMG B- HAD RELAXATION TRAINING AND ONLY PSEUDO-FEEDBACK FROM OTHER SESSIONS C- CONTROL GROUP ON A ‘WAITING LIST’ LAB EXPERIMENT WITH ELECTRODES ATTACHED TO PS MUSCLES & MONITORED USING EMG PSYCHOMETRIC TESTS SUCH AS MMPI USED TO DETERMINE LEVELS OF DEPRESSION COMPLETED QUESTIONAIRES COVERING ASPECTS OF THEIR HEADACHES TWO WEEKS PS KEPT A ACCOUNT OF THEIR HEADACHES ON RATING SCALE GROUP A AND B HAD 16 SESSIONS OF TRAINING (2 A WEEK) AFTER 3 MONTHS GIVEN EMG TEST AND COMPLETED QUESIONAIRE A- MUSCLE TENSION SIGNIFICANTLY LESS THAN B AND AFTER 3 MONTHS STILL LOWER A REPORTED HEADACHES SIGNIFICANTLY LESS MMPI SHOWED REDUCED DEPRESSIONS, HYSERIA IN A – FOLLOWED UP AFTER 18,PMTJS REPORTED LESS HEADACHES BIOFEEDBACK IS AN EFFECTIVE WAY OF TRAINING PATIENTS TO RELAX AND REDUCE HEADACHES/STRESS

16. STRESS- MANAGING STRESS/SOCIAL WAXLER-MORRISON QUASI EXPERIMENT- INDEPENDENT MEASURES DESIGN 133 PRE-MENOPAUSAL WOMEN UNDER 5 WHO WERE REFERRED TO A CLINIC IN VANCOVER WITH CONFIRMED BREAST CANCER INFO GATHERED THROUGH SELF REPORT AND 18 INTERVIEWS, ALSO EXAMINATION OF MEDICAL RECORDS WOMEN NATURALLY FITTED INTO CATEGORIES PSYCHOMETRIC TEST OF SOCIAL NETWORK CONTACT WITH FRIENDS, FAMILY AND THE CHURCH ALSO CONDUCTED SIX ASPECTS OF SOCIAL NETWORK WERE SIGNIFICANTLY LINKED WITH SURVIVAL RATE; MARITAL STATUS, SUPPORT FROM FRIENDS, CONTACT WITH FRIENDS, TOTAL SUPPORT, SOCIAL NETWORK, EMPLOYMENT QUALITIVE FINDINGS SHOWED THAT PRACTICAL HELP SUCH AS CHILDCARE, COOKING AND TRANSPORT TO HOSPITAL WAS A CONCRETE AREA OF SUPPORT SOCIAL NETWORKS ARE SIGNIFICANTLY LINKED TO SURVIVAL, ASSUMPTION THAT SOCIAL NETWORK AND SUPPORT REDUCED STRESS LINKED TO BREAST CANCER STRESS INNOCULATION THERAPY SUGGESTS THERE ARE THREE COMPONENTS TO THE THERAPY 1.PATIENTS WITH STRESS HAVE BECOME AWARE OF THE THOUGHTS THEY HAVE IN STRESSFUL SITUATIONS- SELF-VERBALISATIONS THAT LEAD TO POOR PERFORMANCE DUE TO STRESS 2.COPING STRATEGIES ARE TAUGHT TO ENABLE THEM TO RESTRUCTURE THEIR THOUGHTS. TAUGHT TO RELAX WHEN STRESSED. SELF-INSTRUCTIONS TO RELAX 3.THE PERSON PUTS WHAT THEY HAVE LEARNT INTO PRACTICE IN REAL LIFE STRESSFUL SITUATIONS AND RELAXATION TECHNIQUES IN ORDER TO SUCCEED. HEALTHY LIVING- HEALTH BELIEF MODEL; BECKER HEALTHY LIVING BECKER 111 MOTHERS RESPONSIBLE FOR ADMINISTERING ASTHMA MEDICATION CORRELATION BETWEEN BELIEFS AND COMPLIANCE EACH MOTHER WAS INTERVIEWED FOR 45 MINUTES ASKED ABOUT; CHILDS SUSPECTABILITY TO ILLNESS AND ASTHMA, HOW SERIOUS ASTHMA IS, HOW MUCH THEIR CHILD’S ASTHMA INTERFERRED WITH THEIR LIVES/EDUCATION/EMBARASSMENT MOTHERS COMPLIANCE CORRELATED POSITIVELY WITH BELIEF ABOUT HER CHILD’S SUSPECTABILITY TO ASTHMA AND HOW MUCH THE ATTACKS INTERFERRED WITH THE MOTHERS LIFE, MARTITAL STATUS AND THEIR EDUCATION MOTHERS COMPLIANCE WITH DISTANCE TO CHEMIST, CHILD COMPLAINING AND HOW MUCH THE REGIMEN DISRUPTED DAILY ROUTINE SUPPORTS THE HEALTH BELIEF MODEL AGE, RACE, SEX, CLASS PEER PRESSURE, SOCIAL PRESSURE HOW DANGEROUS IS IT? PRIOR KNOWLEDGE OF DISEASE WILL I GET IT? MEDIA CAMPAIGNS, ADVICE, CPS, MAGAZINE DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES SOCIOPSYCHO VARIABLES STRUCTURAL VARIABLES PERCIEVED SERIOUSNESS AND SUSPECTABILITY CUES TO ACTION ASSESSMENT OF BENEFITS AND BARRIERS PERCIEVED THREAT OF INJURY OR ILLNESS LIKELIHOOD OF ACTION COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS

17. HEALTHY LIVING- LOCUS OF CONTROL LOCUS OF CONTROL REFERS TO WHERE PEOPLE THINK THAT THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THEIR BEHAVIOUR ARE LOCATED EXTERNAL- PEOPLE INTERPRET THE CONSEQUENCES OF THEIR BEHAVIOUR TO BE CONTROLLED BY LUCK, FATE OR A POWERFUL OTHER INTERNAL- PEOPLE THINK THAT EVENTS AND PATTERNS IN THEIR LIVES ARE DUE TO THEIR OWN BEHAVIOUR AND PERSONALITY HEALTHY LIVING ROTTER HE MADE A QUESTIONAIRE OF PAIRS OF STATEMENTS, PLUS 6 ‘FILLER’ STATEMENTS TO DISGUISE THE AIM AND REDUCE DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS CONSISTS ON 23 QUESTIONS NARROWED DOWN FROM 60 FOUND CORRELATIONS WITH MANY DIFFERENT TYPES OF BEHAVIOUR INCLUDING GAMBLING, PERSUASION AND SMOKING GAMBLING- INTERNALS LESS LIKELY BUT IF THEY DID PREFERRED BACKING FAVES EXTERNALS TENDED TO BET ON NUMBERS WHICH HADNT COME UP IN A WHILE SMOKING- EXTERNALS ARE MORE LIKELY TO SMOKE. INTERNALS WHO SMOKE MOST LIKELY TO GIVE IT UP CONCLUDED THAT INTERNALS ARE MORE ABLE TO; GAIN INFORMATION TO GAIN THEIR LIVES, TAKE INITATIVES TO CHANGE THEIR LIVES, RESIST MANIPULATION BY OTHERS, LEAD HEALTHIER LIVES HEALTHY LIVING- SELF EFFICACY DEVELOPED FROM CONCEPT OF LOCUS OF CONTROL BELIEF THAT WE CAN PERFORM ADEQUATELY IN A CERTAIN SITUATION OUR SENSE OF CAPABILITY INFLUENCES OUR PERCEPTION, MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE ARGUES THAT THE SELF EFFICACY BELIEFS WHICH PEOPLE HOLD ABOUT THEIR OWN CAPABILITIES DIRECTLY AFFECT HOW MUCH EFFORT THEY ARE PREPARED TO PUT IN TO ACHIECE AND COMPLETE TASKS 1.OUTCOME EXPECTANCY- BASED ON PREVIOUS EXPERIENCES A PERSON COULD ESTIMATE THE LIKELY OUTCOME OF A SITUATION 2.VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES- SEEING OTHERS DO SOMETHING SUCCESSFUL 3.VERBAL PERSUASION- BEING TOLD YOU CAN DO IT 4.EMOTIONAL AROUSAL- ANXIETY COULD REDUCE A PERSON’S SELF EFFICACY HEALTHY LIVING BANDURA CONTROLLED QUASI EXPERIMENT- SNAKE PHOBIAS 10 SNAKE PHOBIC PAITENTS WHO REPLIED TO A NEWSPAPER 9F/1M PRE TEST ASSESSMENT, ASSESSED FOR AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS A BOA CONSTRICOR, FEAR AROUSAL ORAL RATING 1-10, EFFICACY EXPECTATIONS SYSTEMATIC DESENTITISATION- PATIENTS INTRODUCED TO A SERIES OF EVENTS INVOLVING SNAKES AND THEN TAUGH RELAXATION TO OVERCOME EACH EVENT POST TEST ASSESSMENT HIGHER LEVELS OF POST TEST EFFICACY WERE FOUND TO CORRELATE WITH HIGHER LEVELS OF BEHAVIOUR WITH SNAKES DESENITISATION ENHANCED SELF-EFFICACY LEVELS WHICH IN TURN LEAD TO A BELIEF THAT PS CAN DEAL WITH STIMULUS PHOBIA

18. HEALTHY LIVING- METHODS OF PROMOTION COWPE/MEDIA QUASI EXPERIMENT- MEDIA CAMPAIGN SHOWN IN 10 UK REGIONS MEASURED THE NUMBER OF CHIP PAN FIRES REPORTED TO FIRE BRIGADE AND CONDUCTED TWO QUANTITATIVE CONSUMER ATTITUDE SURVEYS CAMPAIGN HAD 2 60 SECONDS ADS SHOWED THE CAUSES OF CHIP PAN FIRES AND HOW TO PUT THEM OUT REAL TIME AND SLOW MOTION SEQUENCES TO HEIGHTEN AND EFFECTS 12% REDUCTION IN CHIP PAN FIRES IN AD REGIONS COMPARED TO NON-AD REDUCTIONS WERE HIGHEST IMMEDIATELY AFTER SCREENING AND THEN LEVELLED OFF PEOPLE WHO LIVED IN ‘OVERLAP’ AREA RECEIVING MORE THAN ONE REGIONAL CHANNEL SAW THE AD MORE OFTEN AND HAD LESS OF AN IMPACT QUESTIONAIRES SHOWED A INCREASE IN AWARENESS OF CHIP PAN FIRES 62-96% MEDIA CAMPAIGNS CAN BE EFFECTIVE IN INCREASING AWARENESS AND CHANGING BEHAVIOUR- MOST EFFECTIVE SAYING WHAT TO DO RATHER THAN WHAT TO THINK OR BE SCARED OF HEALTHY LIVING- METHODS OF PROMOTION DANNENBERG/LEGISLATION QUASI EXPERIMENT USING SELF REPORT QUESTIONAIRES 7332 CHILDREN SENT QUESTIONAIRES BY POST. RESPONSE RATE OF 48% HOWARD- WHERE LAW WAS INTRODUCED MONTGOMERY- NO LAW BUT EDUCATIONAL AD BALTIMORE- NO LAW AND NO CAMPAIGN ASKED CHILDREN TO COMPARE THEIR PRESENT HELMET USE WITH THAT OF THE YEAR BEFORE- ANOYMOUS BUT PARENTS COULD HELP HOWARD- USE ROSE FROM 11 TO 38% MONTGOMERY- USE ROSE FROM 8 TO 11% BALTIMORE- USE ROSE FROM 7 TO 11% CLEAR MAJORITY DIDN’T WEAR HELMETS LEGISLATION IS EFFECTIVE. THE EDUCATIONAL CAMPAIGNS HAD NO SIGNIFICANT EFFECT HEALTHY LIVING- METHODS OF PROMOTION JANIS AND FESHBECK/FEAR 4 GROUPS OF FEAR- MINIMAL, MODERATE, STRONG FEAR AND A CONTROL GROUP IN A US HIGH SCHOOL AGED BETWEEN 14 AND 15 SELF REPORT QUESTIONAIRES GIVEN OUT 8 WEEK BEFORE, STRAIGHT AFTER AND 1 WEEK AFTER THEY RECEIVED A 15 MINUTE LECTURE STRONG GROUP- AROUSED MOST FEAR MINIMAL FEAR WAS MOST EFFECTIVE STRONG-8%, MODERATE-22%, LOW- 36%, CONTROL- 0% LECTURE 1-HIGH DIRECT STATEMENTS EMPHASIS ON PAINFUL CONSEQUENCES LECTURE 2-MODERATE LITTLE INFO ON CONSEQUENCES MORE FACTUAL LECTURE 3-POOR NEURTRAL INFO ON TOOTH GROWTH RATHER THAN CONSEQU LECTURE 4-HUMAN EYE LECTURE SUGGESTED HIGH FEAR AROUSAL WAS MORE EFFECTIVE AFTER FURTHER RESEARCH AND CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE HEALTHY LIVING- METHODS OF PROMOTION LEVENTHAL/FEAR 3 GROUPS 1.GIVEN A SCARY FILM ABOUT THE PERILS OF SMOKING 2.GIVEN INFORMATION PAMPHLET 3.GIVEN BOTH FILM AND PAMPHLET PAMPHLET AND FILM REDUCED AVERAGE NUMBER OF CIGARETTES IN A DAY SUGGESTS THAT USING FEAR AND INFORMATION IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE METHOD OF CHANGING PEOPLES BEHAVIOUR

19. HEALTHY LIVING- BULPITT AND FLETCHER RESEARCH WAS ANALYSED TO IDENTIFY THE PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DRUG TREATMENT ON A PERSON LIFE. THERE ARE MANY SIDE EFFECTS OF TAKING ANTI-HYPERTENSION MEDICATION; SUCH AS TIREDNESS, DIZZINESS, AND LACK OF SEXUAL FUNCTIONING 8% OF MALES DISCONTINUED TREATMENT BECAUSE OF SEXUAL PROBLEMS 15% OF PAITENTS HAD WITHDRAWN FROM TAKING MEDICATION DUE TO SIDE EFFECTS WHEN THE COST OF TAKING MEDICATION SUCH AS SIDE EFFECTS OUTWEIGHS THE BENEFITS OF TREATING A MAINLY ASYMPTOMATIC PROBLEMS SUCH AS HYPERTENSUON THERE IS LESS LIKLIHOOD OF THE PATIENT ADHERING TO THEIR TREATMENT SARAFINO- THERE ARE MANY REASONS WHY PAITENTS MIGHT NOT ADHERE TO A MEDICAL REGIME, THEY MAY BELIEVE THAT THE TREATMENT ISNT HELPING, SIDE EFFECTS, CONFUSED ABOUT TREATMENT OR FORGETFUL HEALTHY LIVING LUSTMAN A RANDOMISED DOUBLE BLIND STUDY 60 PATIENTS WITH TYPE 1 OR 2 DIABETES AND DIAGNOSED WITH DEPRESSION PATIENTS WERE RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO EITHER FLUOXETINE OR PLACEBO GROUPS. PATIENTS WERE ASSESSED FOR DEPRESSION AND THEIR ADHERENCE TO MEDICAL REGIMEN WERE ASSESSED BY MEASURING THEIR GHB LEVELS PATIENTS GIVEN FLUOXETINE REPORTED LOWER LEVELS OF DEPRESSION PATIENTS GIVEN THE FLUOETINE HAD LOWER LEVELS OF GHB WHICH INDICATED THEIR IMPROVED ADHERENCE MEASURING GHB IN PAITENTS WITH DIABETES INDICATES THEIR LEVEL OF ADHERENCE TO PRESCRIBED MEDICAL REGIMES GREATER ADHERENCE SHOWN BY PATIENTS WHO WERE LESS DEPRESSED IMPROVE DEPRESSION IMPROVES ADHERENCES TO DIABETIC MEDICAL REGIMES HEALTHY LIVING- WATT ET AL FUNHALER SPACER FIELD EXPERIMENT/QUASI EXPERIMENT REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN- CHILDREN USED NORMAL INHALER ONE WEEK THEN FUNHALER THE SECOND WEEK 32 AUSTRALIAN CHILDREN 10M/22F BETWEEN 1.5 AND 6 Y/O EACH CHILD GIVEN A BREATH A TEC FOR ONE WEEK AND PARENTS A QUESTIONAIRE TO FILL IN THEN REPEATED WITH FUNHALER FUNHALER WAS A INCENTIVE TOY WITH A SPINNER AND WHISTLE TO HELP THE CHILD PRATICE DEEP BREATHING EFFECTIVELY TO TAKE ASTHMA MEDICATION 38% MORE PARENTS MEDICATED THEIR CHILD WITH FUNHALER PREVIOUS RESEARCH SHOWED NON-ADHEREANCE DUE TO BOREDOM, FORGETFULNESS AND APATHY. FUNHALER-MAKING REGIME FUN IMPROVED THE CHILDS ADHERENCE DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- CATEGORIES/ DSM DIAGNOSTIC AND STANDARD MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS MAIN DIAGNOSTIC TOOL FOR DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR IN THE USA ASSESSES 5 DIMMENSIONS; CLINCIAL SYNDROMES (DEPRESSION/SCHIZOPHRENIA), DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS, PHYSICAL CONDITIONS (RESULT OF HIV?), SEVERITY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESSORS (SUCH AS A DEATH/NEW JOB), HIGHEST LEVEL OF FUNCTIONING USES A MULTI-DIMENSIONAL APPROACH TO DIAGNOSING AS OTHER LIFE FACTORS IMPACT MENTAL HEALTH RANGE OF FACTORS INCLUDED- HOLISTIC  FORCED CLINICANS TO MAKE DISTINCTIONS AND DECISIONS NOT SUPPORTED BY SOLID EVIDENCE  MANY SECTIONS POORLY WRITTEN, CONFUSING AND CONTRADICTORY

20. DIAGNOSIS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- CATEGORIES/ ICD INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES USED TO DEFINE DISEASES AND STUDY OUTCOMES AND ALLOCATE RESOURCES USED GLOBALLY. ORGANISES INFORMATION INTO STANDARD GROUPINGS OF DISEASES PUBLISHED BY WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION ICD-10 HAD 100 CATEGORIES ALLOWS FOR CROSS CULTURAL COMPARISONS- HAS BEEN TRANSLATED INTO 42 LANGUAGES USED BY PHYSICANS, HEALTH WORKERS, NURSES, HEALTH INFORMATION MANAGERS BOTH PHYSICAL AND MENTAL DISEASES DIAGNOSIS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- DEFINITIONS 5. DEVIATE FROM STATISTICAL NORM 6. DEVIATE FROM SOCIAL NORMS 7. DEVIATE FROM IDEAL MENTAL HEALTH 8. INABILITY TO FUNCTION ADEQUATELY 9. ELEMENTS OF ABNORMALITY- ROSENHANN AND SELIGNMAN SUGGEST 7 ELEMENTS OF ABNORMATLITY, SUFFERING, MALADAPTIVENESS, IRRATIONALITY AND INCOMPREHENSIBLITY, UNPREDICTABLITY AND LOSS OF CONTROL, VIVIDNESS AND UNCONVENTIONALITY, OBSERVER DISCOMFORT AND VIOLATION OF MORAL AND IDEAL STANDARDS. DIAGNOSIS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- BIAS IN DIAGNOISIS/ FORD AND WEDIGER TO SEE IF CLINICIANS WERE STEREOTYPING GENDERS WHEN DIAGNOSING DISORDERS SELF REPORT- PRACTIONERS WERE GIVEN SCENARIOS AND ASKED TO MAKE DIAGNOSES ON THE INFO THEY HAD AN AVERAGE OF 15.6 YEARS EXPERIENCE, GIVEN EITHER MALE, FEMALE OR UNDISCLOSED PAITENTS THE PATIENTS EITHER HAD ASPD OR HSD ASPD- TENDED TO BE VIOLENT, AGGRESSIVE AND DISRESPECTFUL HPD- TENDED TO BE EMOTIONIAL, ATTENTION SEEKING ASPD CORRECTLY DIAGNOSED 42% IN MALES AND 15% IN FEMALES HPS CORRECTLY DIAGNOSED 76% IN FEMALES AND 44% IN MALES SHOWED THE PRACITIONERS HAVE STEREOTYPICAL VIEWS EXPLANATIONS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- BIOLOGICAL/ GOTTESMAN AND SHIELDS REVIEW OF 3 ADOPTION AND 5 TWIN STUDIES INTO SCHIZOPHRENIA TO IDENTIFY WHETHER SCHIZOPHRENIA IS GENETIC AND INHERITED 711 PARTICIPANTS IN ADOPTION. 210 IDENTICAL TWINS 319 NON IDENTICAL COMPARISONS BETWEEN BIOLOGICAL PARENTS AND SILBLINGS AND ADOPTIVE PARENTS AND SIBLINGS ALL TWIN STUDIES FOUND A HIGHER CONCORDANCE RATE FOR SCHIZOPHRENIA IN MONO THAN DIZYGOTIC. 58% IN IDENTICAL TWINS- IF ONE TWIN HAD SCHIZOPHRENIA THE OTHER TWIN HAD 58% CHANCE OF IT SUGGESTS THERE IS A GENETIC ELEMENT INTO THE ONSET OF SCHIZOPHRENIA HOWEVER CONCORDANCE NOT 100% SO THERE MUST BE OTHER FACTORS SUGGESTS GENES IMPORTANT IN TRANSITION OF SCHIZOPHRENIA

21. EXPLANATIONS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- BEHAVIOURAL/ WATSON AND RAYNER CASE STUDY OF 11 MONTH OLD LITTLE ALBERT HE HAD NO FEAR TOWARDS RATS, MASKS OR HAIR BUT WAS SCARED OF THE NOISE OF A HAMMER HITTING A METAL BAR ALBERT WAS PRESENTED WITH THE RAT, A METAL BAR WAS STRUCK JUST AS HE WENT TO TOUCH IT, THIS WAS THEN REPEATED AND HE CRIED AFTER A WEEK IT WAS REPEATED, BEGAN CRYING AND TURNING AWAY AT THE SIGHT OF A RAT. ALSO BECAME SCARED OF SANTA, A RABBIT FEAR WAS GENERALISED TOWARDS OTHER FLUFFY OBJECTS IT IS POSSIBLE TO CONDITION AND GENERALISE A PHOBIA SHOWED FEARS AND PHOBIAS CAN BE LEARNT EXPLANATIONS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- COGNITIVE/ BECK UNDERSTAND COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS IN PATIENTS WITH DEPRESSION CLINICAL INTERVIEWS WITH PATIENTS WHO WERE HAVING THERAPY FOR DEPRESSION 50 DEPRESSED PAITENTS OF AVERAGE IQ COMPARED WITH 31 NON DEPRESSED PAITENTS DEPRESSED FELT LESS INTELLIGANT, LESS SUCCESSFUL AND HAD LOW SELF ESTEEM, SELF-BLAME AND DESIRE TO ESCAPE PEOPLE SUFFERING FROM DEPRESSION HAVE COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS THAT DEVIATE FROM REALISTIC AND LOGICAL THINKING TREATMENTS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- BIOLOGICAL/KARP AND FRANK COMPARE DRUG AND NON-DRUG TREATMENTS FOR DEPRESSION REVIEW DIFFERENT GROUPS, SOME ONLY TAKING DRUGS, SOME HAVE COMBINED DRUG AND PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENT AND SOME IN A PLACEBO GROUP TREATMENT USING DRUGS ALONE IN MANY CASES PROVED TO BE EFFECTIVE AT TACKLING DEPRESSION RATHER THAN COMBINED ASSUME 2 TREATMENTS BETTER THAN ONE HOWEVER DRUG THERAPY ALONE IS AS EFFECTIVE AS COMBINED HIGHLIGHTS THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DRUGS AS TREATMENT OF DEPRESSION TREATMENTS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- BEHAVIOURAL/ MCGRATH SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT OF NOISE PHOBIA CASE STUDY OF 9 YEAR OLD LUCY WITH EXTREME PHOBIA OF LOUD NOISES INCLUDING FIREWROKDS, PARTY POPPERS AND BALLOONS TESTS TO SHOW ONLY PHOBIA ONLY DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR TREATMENT OVER A 4 WEEK PERIOD TAUGHT RELAXATION AND BREATHING TECHNIQUES USED A HYPOTHETICAL FEAR THERMOMETER RANGING 1-10 TAUGHT WHEN HEARING LOUD NOISES TO RELAX WENT FROM CRYING AT THE SOUND OF BALLON POPPING TO INSTRUCTING BALLOON TO BE POPPED, TO POPPING BALLOON SCORE ON FEAR THERMOMETER DECREASED SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION IS A SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT FOR NOISE PHOBIA AND IS EFFECT DUE TO P’S CONTROL

22. TREATMENTS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- DEFINITIONS- STATISTICAL INFREQUENCE- NORMS ARE SOCIALLY ACCEPTABLE OR NORMAL STANDARDS OF BEHAVIOUR. ABNORMALITY IS DEFINED AS MOVING AWAY FROM THE NORM. STATISTICALLY BEHAVIOUR IS ABNORMAL IF IT FALLS OUTSIDE THE RANGE THAT IS TYPICAL FOR MOST PEOPLE AVERAGE IS NORMAL ENABLES ABNORMALITY TO BE QUANTIGIED USING PSYCHOMETRIC TESTS ALLOWS STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF A DIFFICULT BEHAVIOUR  DIFFICULT TO QUANTIFY ALL ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR  WE DON’T HAVE TESTS FOR ALL CONDITIONS  AVERAGE MAY NOT BE CONSIDERED ‘NORM’ BY ALL CULTURES, IE HEARING VOICES IN ONE CULTURE IS SPIRTUAL AND IS DANGEROUS IN ANOTHER EXPLANATIONS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- DEFINITIONS DEVIATION FROM SOCIAL NORMS EVERY SOCIETY OR CULTURE HAS STANDARDS OF ACCEPTABLE BEHAVIOUR/NORMS.. NORMS GENRALLY GUIDE BEHAVIOUR IN SOCIETY DEVIATION FROM SOCIAL NORM FOR EXAMPLE IS PLAYING TENNIS NAKED, WHEREAS IT’S ACCEPTABLE TO SHOWER NAKED CONSIDERS THE CULTURES AND CAN BE VARIED FOR EACH SOCIETY ALLOWS FOR CHANGES TO OCCUR IN SOCIETY  DIFFICULT TO DECIDE WHAT CAN BE CLASSED AS ‘NORMAL’ BEHAVIOUR  COULD BE CONSIDERED TO BE MORE SOCIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- DEFINITIONS DEVIATION FROM IDEAL MENTAL HEALTH/ JAHODA- NEED ALL 6 FUNCTIONS IN ORDER TO BE NORMAL AND HEALTHY- 1.POSITIVE VIEW OF SELF 2.PERSONAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 3.AUTONOMY 4.ACCURATE VIEW OF REALITY 5.POSITIVE RELATIONSHIPS 6.MASTER OF YOUR OWN ENVIRONMENT/ ABLITY TO ADAPT. ALLOWS PROFESSIONALS TO VIEW WHAT A PERSON IS DOING RATHER THAN THEIR INABILITIES POSITIVE VIEW- LOOKS AT WHAT MAKES A PERSON HEALTHY  OPEN TO INTERPRETATION- VARIOUS LEVELS OF THE 6 ELEMENTS CAN BE DISPLACED  THE ELEMENTS CAN BE DIFFICULT TO IDENTIFY IN REAL TERMS TREATMENTS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- DEFINITIONS FAILURE TO FUNCTION ADEQUATELY UNABLE TO LEAD A NORMAL LIFE OF UNABLE TO ENGAGE IN NORMAL BEHAVIOUR UNABLE TO HOLD DOWN A JOB OR TAKE PART IN EVERYDAY ACTIVITIES VARIIOUS INDICATORS- MALADAPTIVENESS OF BEHAVIOUR- PREVENTS THE ABILITY TO LEAD A NORMAL LIFE PERSONAL DISTRESS  DIFFICULT TO DETERMINE WHAT ‘NORMAL LIFE’ IS THIS CAN VARY BETWEEN SOCIETIES AND CULTURES  AMBIGUOUS  MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOUR DIFFICULT TO MEASURE  DIFFICULT TO DETERMINE ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR BASED ON HOW MANY INDICATORS A PERSON HAS

23. TREATMENTS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- COGNITIVE/ BECK UNDERSTAND COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS WITH P’S WITH DEPRESSION CLINICAL INTERVIEWS WITH PATIENTS MATCH PAIRS DESIGN AS MATCHED WITH GROUP OF NON-DEPRESSED PATIENTS, MATCHED FOR VARIABLES SUCH AS AGE, SEX RETROSPECTIVE REPORTS OF P’S THOUGHTS BEFORE THE SESSION AND SOME P’S DIARIES FROM THE WEEK COMPARED TO THE NON- DEPRESSED CERTAIN THEMES WERE COMMON IN DEPRESSED PATIENTS SUCH AS AN OVERWHELMING SENSE OF RESPONSIBLITIES, LOW SELF-ESTEEM AND SELF-BLAME. PEOPLE SUFFERING DEPRESSION HAVE COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS THAT DEVIATE FROM LOGICAL AND RATIONAL THINKING EXPLANATIONS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- BEHAVIOURAL CLASSICAL CONDITIONING- A LEARNING PROCESS THAT OCCURS WHEN TWO STIMULI ARE REPEATEDLY PAIRED. A RESPONSE TO THE FIRST STIMULI THEN DEVELOPS TOWARDS THE SECOND STIMULI, FOR EXAMPLE THE DOG’S SALVIA AT THE BELL AND THE FOOD THERAPIES BASED ON CLASSICAL CONDITIONING ARE BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY OPERANT CONDITIONING- MEANS ROUGHLY CHANGING BEHABIOUR THROUGH THE USE OF REINFORCEMENT WHICH IS GIVEN AFTER THE DESIRED RESPONSE IS GAINED – EITHER REINFORCES BEHAVIOUR OR PUNISHES BEHAVIOUR THERAPIES BASED ON OPERATIONAL CONDITIONING ARE BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATIONS TREATMENTS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- BEHAVIOURAL/ PAUL AND LENTZ COMPARE THREE DIFFERENT THERAPIES 84 LONG TERM HOSPITALISED PSYCHIATRIC PATIENTS RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO ONE OF 3 TREATMENTS; MILEU THERAPY, TOKEN ECONOMY, CUSTODIAL CARE LONGITUDINAL STUDY OVER 4 ½ YEARS ASSESSED AT 6 MONTH INTERVALS TOKEN ECONOMY- ACCEPTABLE BEHAVIOUR REWARDED WITH TOKENS THAT BOUGHT NECESSITIES SUCH AS MEALS/BETTER LIVING/ PASSES TO LEAVE MILIEU THERAPY- HOSPITAL A THERAPEUTIC COMMUNITY AND PAITENTS TREATED AS ADULTS AND TOOK PART IN DECISION MAKING. P’S PRAISED CUSTODIAL CARE- PATIENTS TRATED WITH DRUGS AND ALONE 95% OF TIME 10% OF PATIENTS IN TOKEN ECONOMY AND MILIEU GROUP WERE ABLE TO LEAVE THE HOSPITAL AND THE TOKEN ECONOMY WERE MORE SUCCESSFUL AT STAYING IN COMMUNITY, LESS LIKELY TO REMAIN ON ANTI-PSYCHOTIC DRUGS BEHAVIOURAL TREATMENTS CAN REVERSE THE EFFECTS OF INSTITUTIONALISATION AND CAN IMPROVE SOCIAL SKILLS TREATMENTS OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOUR- BEHAVIOURAL/ LEWLINSOHN EVALUATE EFFICACY OF COPING WITH DEPRESSION COURSE LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF ADOLESCENTS 15-18 Y/O WITH DEPRESSION 69 ADOLESCENTS RECRUITED FROM LETTERS, ANNOUCEMENTS IN SCHOOLS/DOCTORS ALL TREATMENTS PRIOR INCLUDING DRUGS HAD TO BE STOPPED INDEPENDENT DESIGN- RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO 3 CONDITIONS 1- ONLY ADOLESCENTS RECEIVED THE COURSE 2- ADOLESCENTS RECEIVED COURSE AND PARENTS SUPPORT GROUP 3- TOLD ON A WAITING LIST AFTER TREATMENT THEY WERE ASSESSED 1, 6, 12, 24 MONTHS LATER PS ON WAITING LIST TOLD THEY COULD HAVE OTHER TREATMENT WHILE WAITING AND ALL RECEIVED TREATMENT AFTER EXPERIMENT STOPPED TREATMENT WAS CONTROLLED THROUGH HANDOUTS AND HWK FOR PS PARENTS TAUGHT TO REINFORCE POSITIVE CHANGES 52% OF GROUPS 2 MET DMS FOR DEPRESSION AFTER, 57% OF GROUP 1 AND 94% OF GROUP 3 SHOWS THE EFFICANCY OF THE COURSE