1. COIT 342

3.  A database is an organized store of data wherein the data is accessible by named data elements (for example, fields, records, and files).  Database: The collection of files and their internal structures that contain data.  A DBMS (Database Management System)is software that enables end users or application programmers to share and manage data, example DB2, SQL server, Oracle …..etc.  DBMS provides a systematic method of creating, updating, retrieving, and storing in formation in a database.

4.  A DBMS is also responsible for:- 1) data integrity, 2) data security, 3) data access control and optimization, 4) automated rollback, restart, and recovery. Figure 1-2 shows the relationship between a DBMS and a database.

6.  We will talk about what a DBA is?  why one may or may not be needed?  and how to determine what is appropriate for an environment.  we will also learn what other skills and roles may be needed in a DBA.

7.  Database Administration: Short and long-term management of a database to maximize performance and minimize downtime  The DBA is responsible for designing and maintaining an enterprise’s databases

8.  Fireman, Policeman, Surgeon, Shepherd  Fireman because s/he responds to problems whenever they occur. Tends to be first line of defense.  Policeman because s/he is responsible for setting up and maintaining security, monitoring resource utilization, and scheduling intensive jobs or outages

9.  Surgeon because s/he needs to provide both preventative “medicine” as well as emergency surgery to keep the platform healthy  Shepherd because s/he needs to work with the development and user community, attempting to guide them toward the best “pastures” of platform usage

10.  Frequently first point of contact for database problems  Expected to provide expert advice and guidance in technology, especially to developers  Needs to work with management and engineering to build optimal configurations  Emergency support during a crisis

11.  Knowledgeable, but knows own limitations  Responsive 24x7; answers phone & pager  Really enjoys the work.  Can multitask effectively  Can work with little sleep; some nocturnal  Can shoot from the hip, yet follows plans  Communicates and documents well  Natural problem solver, detail oriented

12.  Database administration is rarely approached as a management discipline.  The term discipline implies a plan, and implementation according to that plan.  When database administration is treated as a management discipline, the treatment of data within your organization will improve.  It is the difference between being reactive and proactive DBA.

13.  The reactive DBA functions more like a firefighter than an administrator; he attempts to resolve problems only after problems occur.  In contrast, the proactive DBA implements practices and procedures to avoid problems before they occur.  A proactive database administrator develops and implements a strategic blueprint for deploying databases within the organization.  This plan should address all phases of the application development life cycle.

14.  A data specialist, usually the DBA, should be involved during each phase of the cycle, as shown in Figure 1-3.  During the initiation and requirements gathering phase, the DBA must be available to identify the data components of the project.  He can help to determine if the required data already exists elsewhere in the organization or if the data is brand new.

16.  During the analysis and design phases, the rudimentary data requirements must be transformed into a conceptual and logical data model.  Before development can begin, the logical data model must be translated to a physical database design.  that can be implemented using a DBMS such as Oracle or DB2.  Sample data must be populated into the physical database to allow application testing.  Furthermore, the DBA must develop and implement a process to refresh test data to enable repeatable test runs.

17. DBA responsibilities  When the application moves from development to operational status, the DBA ensures that the DBMS is prepared for the new workload.  This preparation includes implementing appropriate security measures, measuring and modifying the storage and memory requirements for the new application,  and anticipating the impact of the new workload on existing databases and applications.  The DBA is also responsible for migrating the new database from the test environment to the production environment.

18. DBA responsibilities  When the application moves from development to operational status, the DBA ensures that the DBMS is prepared for the new workload.  This preparation includes implementing appropriate security measures, measuring and modifying the storage and memory requirements for the new application,  and anticipating the impact of the new workload on existing databases and applications.  The DBA is also responsible for migrating the new database from the test environment to the production environment. ….. Continue

19. DBA responsibilities….continue  While the application is operational, the DBA performs a host of duties including assuring availability, performance monitoring, tuning, backup and recovery, and authorization management.  When maintenance is requested, the DBA becomes engaged in the entire process once again, from requirements gathering to implementation  Finally, when the application reaches the end of its useful life, the DBA must help to determine the final status of the data used by the application.

20. DBA responsibilities….continue  A good DBA is integral to the entire application development life cycle.

21. Database, Data, and System Administration  There are a business aspects and the technical aspects of data.  The business aspects of data are aligned with data administration,  technical aspects are handled by database administration.  many organizations combine data administration into the database administration role.  Data administration separates the business aspects of data resource management from the technology used to manage data;

22. Data Administrator  The data administrator (DA) is responsible for understanding the business lexicon and translating it into a logical data model  Referring back to the ADLC( Application Development Life Cycle), the DA would be involved more in the requirements gathering, analysis, and design phase,  the DBA also would be involved in the design, development, testing, and operational phases.  The data administrator can be thought of as the Chief Data Officer of the corporation.

23.  A large responsibility of the DA staff is to ensure that data elements are documented properly, usually in a data dictionary or repository.  This is another key differentiation between a DA and a DBA.  The DA focuses on the repository, whereas the DBA focuses on the physical databases and DBMS.  Furthermore, the DA deals with metadata, as opposed to the DBA, who deals with data.  Metadata is often described as data about data;  more accurately, metadata is the description of the data and data interfaces required by the business. Data Administrato r

24.  One of the biggest contributions of data administration to the corporate data asset is the creation of data models. A conceptual data model outlines data requirements at a very high level. A logical data model provides in- depth details of data types, lengths, relationships, and cardinality. The DA uses normalization techniques to deliver sound data models that accurately depict the data requirements of an organization.

25. Database Administrator Database administration is the focus of this entire course, The first duty of the DBA is to understand the data models built by the DA and to communicate the model to the application developers and other appropriate technicians. The logical data model is the map the DBA will use to create physical databases. The DBA should not rely on the DA for the final physical model any more than a DA should rely on a DBA for the conceptual and logical data models. Figure 1-4 depicts this relationship.

26.  Figure 1-4. DBA vs. DA The DBA is the conduit for communication between the DA team and the technicians and application programming staff.

27.  Some organizations, usually the larger ones, also have a system administrator (SA) that impacts DBMS implementation and operations.  The SA is responsible for the installation and setup of the DBMS.  The SA typically has no responsibility for database design and support.  Instead, the DBA is responsible for the databases and  the SA is responsible for DBMS installation, modification, and support.

28. System Administrator The system administrator responsibility to ensure that 1- the IT infrastructure is operational for database development by setting up the DBMS appropriately, 2- applying ongoing maintenance from the DBMS vendor. 3- coordinating migration to new DBMS releases and versions.

29. Database Administrator

30. DBA Tasks Database design Performance monitoring and tuning Database availability Security Backup and recovery Data integrity Release migration

31. Database design DBA must understand the theory and implementation of the relational database management system (RDBMS) he’s using to create the database. Database design - needs understanding of conceptual and logical data modeling techniques. - create and interpret entity-relationship diagrams is essential for designing a relational database. The DBA must ensure that the database design and implementation will enable a useful database for the applications and clients that will use it. A poor relational design can result in poor performance.

32. database performance  Users demand information from the database, and the DBMS supplies this demand for information. The rate at which the DBMS supplies the information can be termed database performance

33. Performance Monitoring and Tuning Five factors influence database performance:  Workload  Throughput  Resources  Optimization  Contention

34.  Workload  The workload that is requested of the DBMS defines the demand. It is a combination of online transactions, batch jobs, ad hoc queries, data warehousing, analytical queries, and commands directed through the system at any given time.  Sometimes workload can be predicted, but at other times it is unpredictable. The overall workload has a major impact on database performance.

35.  Throughput  Throughput defines the overall capability of the computer hardware and software to process data. It is a composite of I/O speed, CPU speed, parallel capabilities of the machine, and the efficiency of the operating system and system software

36. Optimization  Optimization  Optimization refers to the analysis of database requests with query cost formulas to generate efficient access paths to data.  Resources  hardware and software tools at the disposal of the system are known as the resources of the system. Examples include the database kernel, disk space, cache controllers, and microcode.

37.  Contention  When the demand (workload) for a particular resource is high, contention can result. Contention is the condition in which two or more components of the workload are attempting to use a single resource in a conflicting way (for example, dual updates to the same piece of data). As contention increases, throughput decreases.

38.  Database performance  Database performance can be defined as the optimization of resource usage to increase throughput and minimize contention

39. Whenever performance problems are encountered by an application that uses a database, the DBA is usually the first one called to resolve the problem. An effective performance monitoring and tuning strategy requires not just DBMS expertise but knowledge outside the scope of database administration

40. Availability Ensure that database information is always available to all users in a form that suits their needs. The faster the DBA can perform administrative tasks, the more available the data becomes. The DBA must understand all of these aspects of availability and ensure that each application is receiving the correct level of availability for its needs.

41. Once the database is designed and implemented, programmers and users will need to access and modify the data. However, to prevent security breaches and improper data modification, only authorized programmers and users should have access. It is the responsibility of the DBA to ensure that data is available only to authorized users. Security

42. Backup and Recovery The DBA must be prepared to recover data in the event of a problem. The majority of recoveries today occur as a result of application software error and human error. The DBA must be prepared to recover data to a usable point, no matter what the cause, and to do so as quickly as possible. To be prepared for any type of recovery, the DBA needs to develop a backup strategy to ensure that data is not lost in the event of an error in software, hardware, or a manual process.

43. a recover to current  The first type of data recovery that usually comes to mind is a recover to current, usually in the face of a major shutdown. The end result of the recovery is that the database is brought back to its current state at the time of the failure. Applications are completely unavailable until the recovery is complete. a point-in-time recovery application-level  Another type of traditional recovery is a point-in-time recovery. Point-in-time recovery usually deals with an application-level problem. Conventional techniques to perform a point-in-time recovery remove the effects of all transactions since a specified point in time. This can cause problems if valid transactions occurred during that timeframe that still need to be applied.

44.  Transaction recovery is an application recovery  Transaction recovery is a third type of recovery; it addresses the shortcomings of the traditional types of recovery: downtime and loss of good data. Thus, transaction recovery is an application recovery whereby the effects of specific transactions during a specified timeframe are removed from the database. Therefore, transaction recovery is sometimes referred to as application recovery.  To be prepared for any type of recovery, the DBA needs to develop a backup strategy to ensure that data is not lost in the event of an error in software, hardware, or a manual process.

45. Data Integrity A database must be designed to store the correct data in the correct way without that data becoming damaged or corrupted. To ensure this process, the DBA implements integrity rules using features of the DBMS. Three aspects of integrity :  Physical  Semantic  Internal.

46.  Physical issues can be handled using DBMS features such as domains and data types.  Referential constraints are used to specify the columns that define any relationships between tables. Referential constraints are used to implement referential integrity  Unique constraints ensure that the values for a column or a set of columns occur only once in a table.  Check constraints are used to place more complex integrity rules on a column or set of columns in a table Physical integrity

47.  An example of semantic integrity is the quality of the data in the database.  Redundancy is another semantic issue. Semantic Integrity

48. maintaining these structures be aware of their existencehow to cope when the DBMS fails  The final aspect of integrity comprises internal DBMS issues. The DBMS relies on internal structures and code to maintain links, pointers, and identifiers. In most cases, the DBMS will do a good job of maintaining these structures, but the DBA needs to be aware of their existence and how to cope when the DBMS fails Internal Integrity

49.  Index consistency  Index consistency. An index is really nothing but an ordered list of pointers to data in database tables.  Pointer consistency  Pointer consistency. Sometimes large multimedia objects are not stored in the same physical files as other data. Therefore, the DBMS requires pointer structures to keep the multimedia data synchronized to the base table data. Once again, these pointers may get out of sync if proper administration procedures are not followed.  Backup consistency  Backup consistency. Some DBMS products occasionally take improper backup copies that effectively cannot be used for recovery. It is essential to identify these scenarios and take corrective actions.

50. Types of DBAs There are a different type of DBAs 1-DBAs who focus on logical design 2- DBAs who focus on physical design; 3- DBAs who specialize in building systems 4- DBAs who specialize in maintaining and tuning systems; 5-specialty DBAs and general-purpose DBAs. Truly, the job of DBA encompasses many roles. Some organizations choose to split DBA responsibilities into separate jobs.

51. System DBA Database architect Database analyst Data modeler Application DBA Data warehouse administrator

52. System DBA  Focuses on technical rather than business issues, primarily system administration area.  Installing new DBMS versions and applying it  Interfacing with any other technologies required by database applications.  Ensuring appropriate storage for the DBMS.

53.  Installing new DBMS versions and applying maintenance fixes supplied by the DBMS vendor  Setting and tuning system parameters  Tuning the operating system, network and transction processors to work with the DBMS  Ensuring appropriate storage for the DBMS  Enabling the DBMS to work with storage devices and storage management software  Interfacing with any other technologies required by database applications  Installing DBA tools and utilities

54. Database Architect  Involved only in new design and development work not in maintenance, administration, or tuning.  Designing new databases skills are different from implementation and running existing database.  Translating logical data models into physical database designs

55. Typical tasks performed by the database architect include:  Creation of a logical data model (if no DA or data modeler position exists)  Translation of logical data models into physical database designs  Implementing efficient databases including physical characteristics, index design, and mapping database objects to physical storage devices  Analysis of data access and modification requirements to ensure efficient SQL and to ensure that the database design is optimal  Creation of backup and recovery strategies for new databases

56. Database Analyst  Really no set definition for this position.  Sometimes junior DBAs are referred to as database analysts. A role similar to that of the database architect.  A database analyst is just another term used by some companies instead of database administrator.

57.  There is really no standard definition for the Database Analyst job  Could be:  Junior DBA  Database Architect  Data Administrator or Data Analyst  Or could just be another term used for DBA

58. Data Modeler  Data models describe structured data for storage in data management systems such as relational databases.  The main aim is to support the development of information systems by providing the definition and format of data.

59. When the DA role is not defined or staffed there may be a data modeler role defined. A data modeler is usually responsible for a subset of the DA’s responsibilities. Data modeling tasks include:  the collection of data requirements for development projects  analysis of the data requirements  design of project-based conceptual and logical data models  creation of a corporate data model and keeping the corporate data model up-to-date  working with the DBAs to ensure they have a sound understanding of the data models

60. Application DBA  Expert in writing and debugging complex SQL.  Knows the best ways to convert database requests into application programs.  Focus on an individual application, result in better service to the developers of that application.  Have a better understanding of how the application impacts the overall business.

61. Data Warehouse Administrator  Data warehouses are implemented for performing in-depth data analysis.  To monitor and support the data warehouse environment DBA’s are required.  Data warehouse administration requires experience with BI and query tools.  Specialized database design for data warehousing.  So, knowledge on data warehousing technologies such as OLAP, ETL skills are required.

62. Common data warehouse administration tasks and requirements include:  Experience with business intelligence, data analytics, query, and reporting tools  Database design for read only access  Data warehousing design issues such as star schema  Data warehousing technologies such as OLAP (including ROLAP, MOLAP, and HOLAP)  Data transformation and conversion skills  An understanding of data quality issues  Experience with data formats for loading and unloading of data  Middleware implementation and administration

63. Organizations that implement data warehouses for performing in-depth data analysis often staff DBAs specifically to monitor and support the data warehouse environment. Data warehouse administrators must be capable DBAs, but with a thorough understanding of the differences between a database that supports OLTP and a data warehouse. Common data warehouse administration tasks and requirements are shown in the bullets above.

64. At least two separate environments must be created and supported for a quality database implementation: production and test (or development). New development and maintenance work is performed in the test environment; the operational functioning applications are run in the production environment. It is necessary to completely separate the test environment from the production environment to ensure the integrity and performance of operational work

65.  The test environment need not be exactly the same as the production environment.  While the production environment contains all of the data required to support the operational applications, the test environment needs only a subset of data required for acceptable application testing  Furthermore, the test DBMS implementation usually will not be set up with the same amount of resources as the production environment

66.  The test and production environments should structured similarly though. A quality assurance environment may need to be established to perform rigorous testing against new and modified programs before they are migrated to the production environment. Some organizations implement more than two environments, as shown here. If special care is needed for complex application development projects additional levels of isolated testing may need to occur. For example, a unit test environment may exist for individual program development, then an integration testing environment to ensure that new programs works together, or that new programs work correctly with existing programs. A quality assurance environment may need to be established to perform rigorous testing against new and modified programs before they are migrated to the production environment.

67. System Design System Design Database Design Database Design Application Development Application Development Unit Testing Unit Testing Integration Testing Integration Testing Application Shakeout Application Shakeout Testing With Related Systems Testing With Related Systems Volume Testing Volume Testing Operational Status Operational Status Production QualityAssurance Test Environments

68.  DBAs need to keep abreast of new technologies  three specific newer technologies that rely on database administration to be effectively implemented:  database-coupled application logic, Triggers, stored procedures, user defined functions Procedural DBA  Internet-enabled e-business development Internet: eDBA (e-commerce)  handheld computing _Cloud Computing

69. Traditionally, the domain of a database management system was, appropriately enough, to store, manage, and access data. Although these core capabilities are still required of modern DBMS products, additional procedural functionality is slowly becoming not just a nice feature to have, but a necessity. Features such as triggers, user-defined fucntions, and stored procedures provide the ability to define business rules to the DBMS instead of in separate, application programs. These features tightly couple application logic to the database server.

70. The procedural DBA should be responsible for those database management activities that require procedural logic support. This should include primary responsibility for ensuring that stored procedures, triggers, and user- defined functions are effectively planned, implemented, shared, and reused. The procedural DBA also should take primary responsibility for coding and testing all triggers. Stored procedures and user-defined functions, however, will most likely be coded by application programmers, and reviewed for accuracy and performance by procedural DBAs.

71.  Stored procedures can be thought of as programs that live in a database. The procedural logic of a stored procedure is maintained, administered, and executed through the database commands. The primary reason for using stored procedures is to move application code from a client workstation to the database server. Stored procedures typically consume less overhead in a client/server environment because one client can invoke a stored procedure that causes multiple SQL statements to be run. The alternative, the client executing multiple SQL statements directly, increases network traffic and can degrade overall application performance.  A stored procedure is a freestanding database object;

72.  Triggers are event-driven specialized procedures that are attached to database tables. The trigger code is automatically executed by the RDBMS as data changes in the database. Each trigger is attached to a single, specified table. Triggers can be thought of as an advanced form of rule or constraint that uses procedural logic. A trigger cannot be directly called or executed; it is automatically executed (or "fired") by the RDBMS as the result of a SQL INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement issued on its associated table. Once a trigger is created, it is always executed when its firing event occurs.

73.  A user-defined function (UDF) provides a result based on a set of input values. UDFs are programs that can be executed in place of standard, built-in SQL scalar or column functions. A scalar function transforms data for each row of a result set; a column function evaluates each value for a particular column in each row of the results set and returns a single value. Once written, and defined to the RDBMS, a UDF becomes available just like any other built-in database function.

75.  A new type of DBA is required to accommodate the administration of database procedural logic. This new role can be defined as a procedural DBA.  The procedural DBA is responsible for those database management activities that require procedural logic support. He ensures that stored procedures, triggers, and user-defined functions are effectively planned, implemented, shared, and reused. The procedural DBA also takes primary responsibility for coding and testing all triggers. Stored procedures and user-defined functions, although likely to be coded by application programmers, should be reviewed for accuracy and performance by procedural DBAs

76.  the procedural DBA requires communication skills as much as he requires technological acumen. In addition to managing and optimizing database procedural objects, the procedural DBA must inform the development community of new triggers, stored procedures, and UDFs. Furthermore, the DBA must promote reuse. If the programmers do not know that these objects exist, they will never be used

77.  Other procedural administrative functions can be allocated to the procedural DBA. Depending on the number of DBAs and the amount of application development needed, the procedural DBA can be assigned to additional functions such as the following:  Participating in application code design reviews  Reviewing and analyzing SQL access paths (from "EXPLAIN" or "SHOW PLAN")  Debugging SQL  Writing and analyzing complex SQL statements  Rewriting queries for optimal execution

79. The procedural DBA should participate in and lead the review and administration of all procedural database objects: that is, triggers, stored procedures, and UDFs. Although the procedural DBA is unlikely to be as skilled at programming as an application programmer or systems analyst, he must be able to write and review program code reasonably well. The skill level required depends on what languages are supported by the DBMS for creating procedural objects, the rate and level of adoption within the organization, and whether or not an internal organization exists for creating common, reusable programs. Additionally, the procedural DBA should be on call for any problems that occur to database procedural objects in production.

80. of on-demand access to an infinite amount of computing resources.  Cloud computing offers a new model for the delivery of IT resources to users. The primary defining characteristic of Cloud Computing is to give the illusion of on-demand access to an infinite amount of computing resources.  A good example of a Cloud Computing service is offered by Salesforce.com, which delivers access to a CRM application over the web.  Another aspect prevalent with Cloud computing offerings is that users can rent computing power with no commitment. Instead of buying a server, you can rent the use of one and pay just for what you use.  This used to be referred to as utility computing because it mimics how people pay for utilities, such as water or electricity.  It is a “pay as you go” service.  Pervasive devices such as smart phones often are used to interact with data in the cloud.

81.  DBAs may be called upon to administer the databases used by cloud computing  Similar duties, availability becomes more of an issue

82.  DBAs will not be needed to manage and work on the database on each PDA, but the job of the DBA will be impacted by this development. A database the size of those stored on PDAs should not require the in-depth tuning and administration that is required of enterprise database implementations. However, DBAs will be called upon to help design appropriately implemented databases for small form factor devices like PDAs. But this is not the biggest impact.   A big impact on DBA is in the planning for and management of the data synchronization from hundreds or thousands of PDAs. When should synchronization be scheduled? How will it impact applications that use large production databases that are involved in the synchronization? How can you ensure that a mobile user will synchronize his data reliably and on schedule? Alternately, for Cloud implementations, DBAs will likely be responsible for assuring reliable data availability. Designing and tuning a database implementation for Cloud computing can require significant resources to manage large amounts of data and assure around-the-clock availability.

83.  Professional certification is offered by the leading DBMS vendors  IBM, Oracle, Microsoft, others  General concept: a certified DBAs should be capable of performing DBA tasks and duties  But passing a test is not always a viable indicator of being able to perform a complex job like DBA. http://www.craigsmullins.com/dbta_012.htm

84.  Database security: - System security - Data security  System privileges: Gaining access to the database  Object privileges: Manipulating the content of the database objects  Schemas: Collections of objects, such as tables, views, and sequences  The database administrator has high-level system privileges for tasks such as: Creating new users Removing users Removing tables Backing up tables

85. Some of the frequent queries executed by DBA:  CREATE USER statement to create and configure an database user.  ALTER DATABASE statement to open/mount a database.  BACKUP statement to take backup of control files.  RECOVER statement to recover the saved control files. Sample query:  create directory my_dir as '/home/oracle/andyb‘;

86.  SQL Server Management Studio is a software application first launched with the Microsoft SQL Server 2005 that is used for configuring, managing, and administering all components within Microsoft SQL Server.  Adminer is a tool for managing content in MySQL databases. "Light-weight" - released in a form of a single file, approx160 KB in size. User-friendly interface.