1. Extra Credit Question
List two assumptions of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Principle:
Print your name, TA, and section # at top of card.
Thanks!

2. Announcements Midterm on Tuesday March 8!
HW #3 due before 9am on Tuesday, March 8.
Solutions to Recommended Problems 2 posted
Recommended Problems 3 posted
Old Exam posted

3. Population Genetics

4. Macrophage

5. CCR CCR5-D32

7. What accounts for this variation. Random
What accounts for this variation? Random? Past epidemics (plague, smallpox)?
What will happen to this variation in the future? Will D32 allele increase in frequency?

8. These are the questions that “population genetics” is designed to address

9. Genotype & Allele Frequencies in a Genetic Cross
Genotype Frequency Allele Frequency (A) P:
F1:
F2:
F3:
AA x aa
p =
0.5
all Aa
p =
0.5
25% AA : 50% Aa : 25% aa
p =
0.5
25% AA : 50% Aa : 25% aa
p =
0.5

10. MN Blood Group: Codominant Alleles
Genotype & Allele Frequencies in a Population Sample
MN Blood Group: Codominant Alleles
.298
.489
.213
p=1085/2000
p=.5425
q=915/2000
q=.4575

12. frequency of MM = p2
frequency of MN = 2pq
frequency of NN = q2
(expansion of [p + q]2 )

13. Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Allele frequencies remain constant from generation to generation unless some outside force is acting to change them
When an allele is rare, there are many more heterozygotes than homozygotes (if p is small, then p2 is very small)

14. Usefulness of H-W
If you know the allele frequencies, you can predict the genotype frequencies:
Q: In S. France, the frequency of the D32 allele is 10% (i.e., q=0.10). What proportion of individuals will be homozygous for the allele? What proportion will be heterozygous? AA Aa aa p2
2pq q2

15. Usefulness of H-W
If you know the frequency of one of the homozygous genotypes, you can estimate allele frequencies, and predict the frequencies of the other genotypes.
Q: Among individuals of European descent, 1/1700 newborns have cystic fibrosis (a recessive genetic disorder). What proportion of this population are heterozygous carriers?
Hint: q2 = 1/1700 =
A: 2pq = 0.047

16. H-W principle also can be used for sex-linked traits: treat sexes separately
Homogametic Sex
XA XA p2
XA Xa 2pq
Xa Xa q2
Heterogametic Sex
(Allele Freq=Genotype Freq)
XA Y p
Xa Y q
Q: If 8% of men are colorblind, what percent of women are color blind?
Hint: q=0.08
A: q2 =

17. If 8% of men are color blind => Xa allele frequency q = 0.08
XA allele frequency p = 1 - q = 0.92
What proportion of women are heterozygous carriers?

18. Multiple Alleles: ABO blood types
p = freq of A allele
q = freq of B allele
r = freq of O allele
Expansion of [p + q + r]2 =
p2 + q2 + r2+ 2pq + 2pr + 2qr

19. What assumptions are made by H-W?
Gamete production is unbiased (no fertility selection)
Gamete union (mating) is random

20. What assumptions are made by H-W?
Zygotes equally viable (no viability selection)

21. Other assumptions of H-W?AA aa Aa
migrants?
No migration

22. Other assumptions of H-W?AA Aa aa aa aa Aa Aa
Population is large so random change in allele frequency is unlikely

23. Assumptions of H-W Mating is random across the entire population.
All genotypes have equal viability and fertility (no selection).
Migration into the population can be ignored.
Mutation does not occur, or is so rare it can be ignored.
Population is large enough that the allele frequencies do not change from generation to generation due to chance (random genetic drift).
Allele frequencies are the same in females and males.

24. What happens when any of these assumptions are violated?
Selection Mutation
Non-random mating
Migration
Genetic Drift
If any of these processes are occurring, will tend to get deviations from H-W expected proportions

25. How can we detect deviation from H-W expectations?
Do observed genotype frequencies match HW expectations?

26. Do observed genotype frequencies match HW expectations?
S(O-E)2/E

27. Do This for Thursday’s Extra Credit Problem
Caution!
Degrees of freedom in this problem are not what you might expect.
Df=1, not 2
Anyone know why?

28. Importance of H-W H-W is an important tool for population genetics.
If assumptions are met, we can use it to estimate allele and genotype frequencies that would otherwise be difficult to measure.
If assumptions are not met (can be tested statistically), then we know that some outside force is perturbing allele or genotype frequencies.

29. Change in allele frequencies over generations
Evolution is defined as a change in allele (or genotype) frequencies over generations, and evolution will be caused by violation of any of the assumptions of H-W.

30. Forces that cause deviation from H-W (evolution)
Selection
Mutation
Genetic Drift
Nonrandom Mating
Gene Flow (Migration)

32. Genotype A has a constitutive mutation for enzyme production in the lactose operon.
B is the normal inducible lactose operon.
A and B grown together in environment with limited lactose.

34. New allele frequencies? p = (25+25)/95 = 0.53 q = (25+20)/95 = 0.47
Genotypes Number: AA 25 Aa 50 aa
Survival to reproduction
100% = 1 20
80% = 0.8
Gamete contribution
25/95 A
25/95 A; 25/95 a
20/95 a
New allele frequencies?
p = (25+25)/95 = q = (25+20)/95 = 0.47
New genotype frequencies (assume random mating):
AA Aa aa

35. Consistent differences in survival or reproduction between genotypes = genotypic-specific differences in fitness
When fitness values are expressed on a scale such that highest fitness=1, then the values are called relative fitness
To conveniently calculate change in allele frequency due to selection, need concept of average fitness

36. Change in allele frequency
Genotype AA Aa aa
Genotype Frequency p2 2pq q2
Relative Fitness WAA WAa Waa
(W=average fitness= p2WAA/W+ 2pqWAa/W + q2WAa/W)
Freq of A after one gen. of selection:
p' = p2 WAA/W + pqWAa/W
Freq of a after one gen. of selection: (1-p’) or:
q'= q2 Waa/W + pqWAa/W

37. CCR5 Example Genotype frequency: W/W 0.81 W/D32 0.18 D32/D32 0.01
Relative Fitness
0.99
1.0
Average fitness W = 0. 81* * *1 =
q'=q2Waa/W + pqWAa/W = =
p’= 1-q’ =
Next generation genotype freq.

39. Selection will increase the frequency of D32 allele
Selection is relatively weak
The favored allele is recessive and the favored genotype is very rare
The change in allele frequency (response to selection) will be relatively slow