1. Knowing the Heavens Chapter Two

2. Naked-eye astronomy had an important place in ancient civilizations Positional astronomy –the study of the positions of objects in the sky and how these positions change Naked-eye astronomy –the sort that requires no equipment but human vision Extends far back in time –British Isles Stonehenge –Native American Medicine Wheel –Aztec, Mayan and Incan temples –Egyptian pyramids

4. Eighty-eight constellations cover the entire sky Ancient peoples looked at the stars and imagined groupings made pictures in the sky We still refer to many of these groupings Astronomers call them constellations (from the Latin for “group of stars”)

6. Modern Constellations On modern star charts, the entire sky is divided into 88 regions. Each is a constellation Most stars in a constellation are nowhere near one another They only appear to be close together because they are in nearly the same direction as seen from Earth

7. The appearance of the sky changes during the course of the night and from one night to the next Stars appear to rise in the east, slowly rotate about the earth and set in the west. This diurnal or daily motion of the stars is actually caused by the 24-hour rotation of the earth.

10. Annual Motion The stars also appear to slowly shift in position throughout the year This is due to the orbit of the earth around the sun If you follow a particular star on successive evenings, you will find that it rises approximately 4 minutes earlier each night, or 2 hours earlier each month

12. Animation of constellation movement To represent what we have just discussed, follow this animation from the vantage point of our Californian observer.animation

13. It is convenient to imagine that the stars are located on a celestial sphere The celestial sphere is an imaginary object that has no basis in physical reality However it is still a model that remains a useful tool of positional astronomy Landmarks on the celestial sphere are projections of those on the Earth

14. At any time, an observer can see only half of the celestial sphere The other half is below the horizon, hidden by the body of the Earth Circumpolar stars

18. Who volunteers to be the class rep?

19. Celestial equator divides the sky into northern and southern hemispheres Celestial poles are where the Earth’s axis of rotation would intersect the celestial sphere Polaris is less than 1° away from the north celestial pole, which is why it is called the North Star or the Pole Star. Point in the sky directly overhead an observer anywhere on Earth is called observer’s zenith. RA dec

20. Two more types of angle and time Hour angle (HA) of an object is the angle between the meridian on which the object is situated and the (observer’s) celestial meridian. Local Sidereal Time (LST) is the Right Ascension of an observer’s celestial meridian. LST = RA + HA

22. The Seasons are caused by the tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation The Earth’s axis of rotation is not perpendicular to the plane of the Earth’s orbit It is tilted about 23½° away from the perpendicular & is called the obliquity. The Earth maintains this tilt as it orbits the Sun, with the Earth’s north pole pointing toward the north celestial pole

24. Seasons During part of the year the northern hemisphere of the Earth is tilted toward the Sun As the Earth spins on its axis, a point in the northern hemisphere spends more than 12 hours in the sunlight The days there are long and the nights are short, and it is summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the southern hemisphere The summer is hot not only because of the extended daylight hours but also because the Sun is high in the northern hemisphere’s sky As a result, sunlight strikes the ground at a nearly perpendicular angle that heats the ground efficiently This situation reverses six months later

25. What seasons are NOT: Seansons are NOT! caused by the changing distance of the Earth from the sun during the course of a year!

26. The Sun appears to trace out a circular path called the ecliptic on the celestial sphere tilted at 23 ½ degrees to the equator The ecliptic and the celestial equator intersect at only two points Each point is called an equinox The point on the ecliptic farthest north of the celestial equator that marks the location of the Sun at the beginning of summer in the northern hemisphere is called the summer solstice At the beginning of the northern hemisphere’s winter the Sun is farthest south of the celestial equator at a point called the winter solstice June 21 March 21 Dec 21 Sept 21

28. Landmarks on the Earth’s surface are marked by the Sun’s position in the sky throughout the year

29. The Moon helps to cause precession, a slow, conical motion of Earth’s axis of rotation

30. Precession causes the gradual change of the star that marks the North Celestial Pole

31. Positional astronomy plays an important role in keeping track of time Apparent solar time is based on the apparent motion of the Sun across the celestial sphere, which varies over the course of the year Mean solar time is based on the motion of an imaginary mean sun along the celestial equator, which produces a uniform mean solar day of 24 hours Ordinary watches and clocks measure mean solar time Sidereal time is based on the apparent motion of the celestial sphere

32. Local noon is defined to be when the Sun crosses the upper meridian, which is the half of the meridian above the horizon

36. You watch Sirius set at about 2 AM in the middle of February. About what time will it set in the middle of March? A) At 10 pm B) At midnight C) At 2 am D) At 4 am

37. Astronomical observations led to the development of the modern calendar Day is based on Earth’s rotation Month is based on the lunar cycle Year is based on Earth’s orbit

38. Different types of “day” Apparent solar day: time between two upper meridian transits of the sun. Mean solar day: time between two upper meridian transits of the mean sun. (~361deg rotation) Sidereal day: time between two upper meridian transits of the vernal equinox. (360 deg rotation) 1 mean solar day : 24 h 1 sidereal day : 23 h 56 m 4.091s

39. Different types of “year” Calendar year: integer number of mean solar days, (365 or 366) Sidereal year: time for the sun to return to the same position with respect to the stars (time of one 360 deg orbit of the earth around the sun). Tropical year: time for the sun to return to the vernal equinox. 1 sidereal year = 365.2564 mean solar days 1 tropical year = 365.2422 mean solar days

40. Calendars Caesar introduced the 365.25 days calendar and thus the Leap Year (an extra day, February 29, every year divisible by 4). However, this is 11 m 14 s longer than the tropical year. This accumulates to 3 days in 4 centuries error. To correct, October 4 was followed by October 15, in 1562 and the century rule was invoked (Gregorian calendar).

42. Last thought on coordinates The Equatorial System of Coordinates is what most astronomers use when specifying the location of an object on the Celestial Sphere Right Ascension (measured eastwards from the Vernal Equinox) goes from 0 h to 24 h Declination (measured north or south from the celestial equator goes from -90° to +90 °. The hour angle (HA) of an object is the angle between the meridian on which the object is situated and the (observer’s) celestial meridian (Local) Sidereal Time is the Right Ascension that is located on an observer’s local celestial meridian. LST = RA + HA

43. Sidereal and Solar Days Appreciating the difference between a solar day and a sidereal day is a challenging concept. See if this helps.helps

44. The Earth’s orbit Seasons do NOT arise from the distance the Earth is from the Sun but rather as a result of the Earth’s annual motion and axial inclination – the tip of our planet with respect to its orbital plane. As we move around the Sun, the orientation of our planet gives us seasons. seasons

45. The different types of ‘year’. The sidereal year (year with respect to the stars) measured in solar time is 365 d 6 h 9 m 10 s (365.2564 d ) in length. The tropical year (successive passages of the Sun through the Vernal Equinox) is 365 d 5 h 48 m 46 s (365.2422 d ) in length. Due to precession, the tropical year is 20 m 24 s shorter than the sidereal year.

46. The different types of ‘year’. Sidereal year (year with respect to the stars) = 365 d 6 h 9 m 10 s = 365.2564 d mean solar days Tropical year (successive passages of the Sun through the Vernal Equinox) is 365 d 5 h 48 m 46 s (365.2422 d ) in length. Due to precession, the tropical year is 20 m 24 s shorter than the sidereal year.

47. The Celestial Coordinate System Again, let us see what we have just determined in a more 3-dimension manner.3-dimension