1. Topic 6: Fields and Forces Topic 6.2 Electric force and field

2. Electrification by Friction Electric charge, or `electricity', can come from batteries and generators. But some materials become charged when they are rubbed. Their charge is sometimes called electrostatic charge or `static electricity'. It causes sparks and crackles when you take off a pullover, and if you slide out of a car seat and touch the door, it may even give you a shock.

5. When two charged polythene rods are brought close together, they repel (try to push each other apart). When two charged polythene rods are brought close together, they repel (try to push each other apart). The same thing happens with two charged Perspex rods. The same thing happens with two charged Perspex rods.

6. However, a charged polythene rod and a charged Perspex rod attract each other. However, a charged polythene rod and a charged Perspex rod attract each other. Experiments like this suggest that there are two different and opposite types of electric charge. Experiments like this suggest that there are two different and opposite types of electric charge. These are called positive (+) charge and negative ( ‑ ) charge: These are called positive (+) charge and negative ( ‑ ) charge:

7. State and apply the law of conservation of charge. The law of conservation of electric charge states that the net amount of electric charge produced in any process is zero. The law of conservation of electric charge states that the net amount of electric charge produced in any process is zero. Said in another way, no net electric charge can be created or destroyed. Said in another way, no net electric charge can be created or destroyed.

8. Conservation of Charge Where do charges come from? Where do charges come from? Everything is made of tiny particles called atoms. Everything is made of tiny particles called atoms. These have electric charge inside them. These have electric charge inside them. There is a central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons. There is a central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons. Orbiting the nucleus are much lighter electrons Orbiting the nucleus are much lighter electrons

9. Electrons have a negative ( ‑ ) charge. Electrons have a negative ( ‑ ) charge. Protons have an equal positive (+) charge. Protons have an equal positive (+) charge. Neutrons have no charge. Neutrons have no charge.

10. Normally, atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons, so the net (overall) charge on a material is zero. Normally, atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons, so the net (overall) charge on a material is zero. However, when two materials are rubbed together, electrons may be transferred from one to the other. However, when two materials are rubbed together, electrons may be transferred from one to the other. One material ends up with more electrons than normal and the other with less. One material ends up with more electrons than normal and the other with less. So one has a net negative charge, while the other is left with a net positive charge. So one has a net negative charge, while the other is left with a net positive charge.

11. Rubbing materials together does not make electric charge. It just separates charges that are already there. Rubbing materials together does not make electric charge. It just separates charges that are already there. Charge is always conserved in any action, the distribution of charge is changed. Charge is always conserved in any action, the distribution of charge is changed.

12. Conductors and Insulators When some materials gain charge, they lose it almost immediately. This is because electrons flow through them or the surrounding material until the balance of negative and positive charge is restored. When some materials gain charge, they lose it almost immediately. This is because electrons flow through them or the surrounding material until the balance of negative and positive charge is restored.

13. Conductors Conductors are materials that let electrons pass through them. Conductors are materials that let electrons pass through them. Metals are the best electrical conductors. Metals are the best electrical conductors. Some of their electrons are so loosely held to their atoms that they can pass freely between them. Some of their electrons are so loosely held to their atoms that they can pass freely between them. These free electrons also make metals good thermal conductors. These free electrons also make metals good thermal conductors. Most non ‑ metals conduct charge poorly or not at all, although carbon (in the form of graphite) is an exception. Most non ‑ metals conduct charge poorly or not at all, although carbon (in the form of graphite) is an exception.

14. Insulators Insulators are materials that hardly conduct at all. Insulators are materials that hardly conduct at all. Their electrons are tightly held to atoms and are not free to move ‑ although they can be transferred by rubbing. Their electrons are tightly held to atoms and are not free to move ‑ although they can be transferred by rubbing. Insulators are easy to charge by rubbing because any electrons that get transferred tend to stay where they are. Insulators are easy to charge by rubbing because any electrons that get transferred tend to stay where they are.

15. Semiconductors Semiconductors are `in ‑ between' materials. Semiconductors are `in ‑ between' materials. They are poor conductors when cold, but much better conductors when warm. They are poor conductors when cold, but much better conductors when warm.