1. –Biology is the scientific study of life. The Scope of Life Life is structured on a size scale ranging from the molecular to the global. Biology’s scope stretches across the enormous diversity of life on Earth.

2. ATOMS

3. Ionic Bonds

4. Covalent Bonds

5. Hydrogen Bonds

6. Chemical Reactions

9. Biological Molecules –There are four categories of large molecules in cells: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids

10. Biological Molecules –There are four categories of large molecules in cells: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids small sugar molecules L-O-N-G starch molecules

11. Polysaccharides

12. The Overall Equation for Cellular Respiration –A common fuel molecule for cellular respiration is glucose. The overall equation for what happens to glucose during cellular respiration

13. Adding Up the ATP from Cellular Respiration

14. Biological Molecules –There are four categories of large molecules in cells: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids –fats –steroids –Lipids are hydrophobic. They do not mix with water

15. The Versatility of Cellular Respiration –Cellular respiration can “burn” other kinds of molecules besides glucose:

16. –The lipids belong to a special category called phospholipids. –Phospholipids form a two-layered membrane, the phospholipid bilayer.

17. A Panoramic View of Eukaryotic Cells

18. Osmosis and Water Balance in Cells –Osmosis is the passive transport of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

19. Membrane Function –Working cells control the transport of materials to and from the environment with membranes. –They do this with the aid of membrane proteins.

20. Biological Molecules –There are four categories of large molecules in cells: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids

21. The Versatility of Cellular Respiration –Cellular respiration can “burn” other kinds of molecules besides glucose:

22. Proteins –A protein is a polymer constructed from amino acid monomers. –Proteins perform most of the tasks the body needs to function. Structural Proteins Storage Proteins Contractile Proteins Transport Proteins Defensive Proteins Receptor Proteins Enzymes Hormonal Proteins Sensory Proteins Gene Regulatory Proteins

23. Protein Shape –Proteins have four levels of structure.

24. –Enzymes can function over and over again. How Enzymes Work

25. Adding Up the ATP from Cellular Respiration

26. A review of photosynthesis

27. –The molecules of electron transport chains are built into the inner membranes of mitochondria. The chain functions as a chemical machine that uses energy released by the “fall” of electrons to pump hydrogen ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane. These ions store potential energy.

28. Biological Molecules –There are four categories of large molecules in cells: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid RNA, ribonucleic acid

29. –Two strands of DNA join together to form a double helix.

30. How DNA Controls the Cell –DNA controls the cell by transferring its coded information into RNA. The information in the RNA is used to make proteins.

31. The Cell

32. Figure 4.4

33. –Almost all of the genes of a eukaryotic cell Are located on chromosomes in the cell nucleus. The Cell Cycle and Mitosis

34. Eukaryotic Chromosomes –Each eukaryotic chromosome contains one very long DNA molecule, Typically bearing thousands of genes. –The number of chromosomes in a eukaryotic cell Depends on the species.

35. –Chromosomes Are made of chromatin, a combination of DNA and protein molecules. Are not visible in a cell until cell division occurs.

36. –The DNA in a cell is packed into an elaborate, multilevel system of coiling and folding.

37. –Before a cell divides, it duplicates all of its chromosomes, resulting in two copies called sister chromatids. –When the cell divides, the sister chromatids separate from each other.

38. From movie folder play: –MitosisOverview.html –LateInterphase.html –Prophase.html –Prometaphase.html –Metaphase.html –Anaphase.html –Telophase.html –Cytokinesis.html To wrap it all up play: –MitosisAllPhases.html

39. The Cell Cycle –Eukaryotic cells that divide undergo an orderly sequence of events called the cell cycle. – The cell cycle consists of two distinct phases: Interphase Mitotic phase

40. Figure 8.7

41. Mitosis and Cytokinesis –Mitosis Is the division of the chromosomes. Is preceded by interphase. From movie folder play: - AnimalMitosis_SV.mpg - SeaUrchinTimeLapse_SV.mpg

42. Figure 8.8.1

43. –Mitosis consists of four distinct phases: Prophase Metaphase

44. Figure 8.8.2

45. Anaphase Telophase

46. Figure 8.8.3

47. –Cytokinesis Typically occurs during telophase. Is the division of the cytoplasm. Is different in plant and animal cells. From movie folder play: - Cytokinesis.html

48. Figure 8.9a

49. Figure 8.9b

50. Fighting Cancer

51. –Sexual reproduction depends on Meiosis. Fertilization. Meiosis, The Basis of Sexual Reproduction Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

52. Homologous Chromosomes –Different organisms of the same species have the same number and types of chromosomes.

53. –A somatic cell Is a typical human body cell. Has 46 chromosomes.

54. –A karyotype is an orderly arrangement of chromosomes. –Homologous chromosomes are matching pairs of chromosomes.

55. Figure 8.13

56. –Humans have Two different sex chromosomes, X and Y. Twenty-two pairs of matching chromosomes, called autosomes.

57. Gametes and the Life Cycle of a Sexual Organism –The life cycle of a multicellular organism is the sequence of stages leading from the adults of one generation to the adults of the next.

58. Figure 8.14

59. –Humans are diploid organisms. Their cells contain two sets of chromosomes. Their gametes are haploid, having only one set of chromosomes.

60. – Fertilization Is the fusion of sperm and egg. Creates a zygote, or fertilized egg. –Sexual life cycles involve an alternation of diploid and haploid stages.

61. Figure 8.15

62. The Process of Meiosis –In meiosis, Haploid daughter cells are produced in diploid organisms. Two consecutive divisions occur, meiosis I and meiosis II, preceded by interphase. Crossing over occurs. From movie folder play: MeiosisOverview.htmlTelophaseICytokin.html Interphase.htmlProphaseII.html ProphaseI.htmlMetaphaseII.html MetaphaseI.htmlAnaphaseII.html AnaphaseI.htmlTelophaseIICytokin.html

63. Figure 8.16.1

64. Figure 8.16.2

65. Figure 8.16.3

66. Review: Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis –All the events unique to meiosis occur during meiosis I.

67. Figure 8.17

68. The Origins of Genetic Variation –Offspring of sexual reproduction are genetically different from their parents and from one another.

69. Independent Assortment of Chromosomes –In independent assortment, every chromosome pair orients independently of the others during meiosis. From the movie folder play: - GeneticVariation.html

70. Figure 8.18

71. Random Fertilization –The human egg cell is fertilized randomly by one sperm, leading to genetic variety in the zygote.

72. Crossing Over –In crossing over, Homologous chromosomes exchange genetic information. Genetic recombination occurs. From the movie folder play: - CrossingOver.html

73. Figure 8.19

74. –What happens when errors occur in meiosis? When Meiosis Goes Awry

75. How Accidents During Meiosis Can Alter Chromosome Number –In nondisjunction, The members of a chromosome pair fail to separate during anaphase. Gametes with an incorrect number of chromosomes are produced. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

76. Figure 8.20

77. –The result of nondisjunction

78. Down Syndrome: An Extra Chromosome 21 –Down Syndrome Is a condition where an individual has an extra chromosome 21. Is also called trisomy 21.

79. Figure 8.22

80. –The incidence of Down Syndrome increases with the age of the mother.

81. Abnormal Numbers of Sex Chromosomes –Nondisjunction Also affects the sex chromosomes.

82. Evolution Connection: New Species from Errors in Cell Division –Errors in meiosis may have been instrumental in the evolution of many species. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

83. –Polyploids Are new species. Have more than two sets of homologous chromosomes in each somatic cell.