1. Chemical Bonding I

2. Bonding Chemical bonds are forces that cause a group of atoms to behave as a unit. Bonds result from the tendency of a system to seek its lowest possible energy. Bond breaking always requires energy, and bond formation always releases energy.

3. Types of Bonds The type of bonding depends upon the nature of the atoms that are combined. A metal and a non-metal will form ionic bonds when electrons are transferred from the metal to the non-metal. The resulting attraction between oppositely charged ions forms a stable crystal.

4. Types of Bonds When metals bond with each other, the valence electrons are shared by the atoms in the entire crystal. The electrons are no longer associated with a specific nucleus, and are free to move throughout the sample.

5. Lewis Structures Lewis Structures, also known as Lewis dot diagrams, show how the valence electrons are arranged among the atoms in the molecule. For ionic compounds, it shows the end result when the metal loses its electrons to the non-metal.

6. Covalent compounds exist as discrete molecules, whereas ionic compounds consist of an aggregate of cations and anions.

7. Covalent Bonds When two (or more) non-metals form bonds, electrons are shared. The result is a covalent bond. Covalent bonds form because the attraction of electrons for the nuclei in the atoms is greater than the electron-electron repulsion or the nucleus-nucleus repulsion.

8. Types of Bonds There is usually an optimum bond length or internuclear distance where attractions between electrons and the nuclei are optimized and repulsions are minimized.

9. Bond Formation

10. Covalent Bonding

11. Bond Energy Bond formation releases energy, and bond breaking requires energy.

12. Types of Covalent Bonds Atoms bonded together may share one, two or three pairs of electrons to make single, double or triple bonds. Double and triple bonds are stronger and shorter than single bonds between the same atoms.

13. Covalent Bonding When atoms of the same element form a covalent bond, the electrons are shared equally. Such a bond is called non-polar, or pure covalent. All homonuclear diatomic molecules contain non-polar bonds.

14. Electronegativity An electronegativity scale, developed by Linus Pauling (1901-1995), is used to predict the direction of the polarity of bonds. Electronegativity is a relative scale that reflects the ability of an atom to attract the electrons in a bond.

15. Electronegativity The small atoms in the upper right corner of the table, having high values of Z eff, also have high electronegativity values. Fluorine has the highest value at 4.0. The noble gases generally do not form compounds, and are not given electronegativity values.

16. Electronegativity

17. Electronegativity The large metal atoms in the lower left hand corner of the periodic table have the lowest electronegativity values.

18. Electronegativity

19. Electronegativity Note that hydrogen has an electro-negativity value of 2.1, consistent with non-metals.

20. Covalent Bonding When atoms of different elements form a covalent bond, the electrons often are not shared equally. The electrons in the bond may spend, on average, more time on one of the atoms. This atom will have a slightly negative charge, indicated by the symbol δ –. The other atom will be slightly positive, indicated as δ +.

21. Covalent Bonding Covalent bonds with unequal sharing of the electrons in the bond are called polar bonds. An example is the molecule HF. The electrons spend more time on fluorine than on hydrogen. As a result, HF is a polar molecule. H F δ+δ+ δ-δ-

22. Dipole Moment Polar molecules have a dipole moment. This is a measure of the tendency of a molecule to line up in an electric field.

23. Dipole Moment Dipole moment, μ, depends upon the size of the partial charges and the distance between the charges. It is measured in Debye (D). A positive charge and a negative charge separated by 100 pm has a dipole moment of 4.80 D.

24. Polarity of Molecules Molecules with polar bonds may be polar, having a permanent dipole moment. Both the polarity of the bonds and the shape of the molecule must be considered. Once the Lewis structure (dot diagram) for the molecule has been determined, it is possible to predict the shape of the molecule and its polarity.

25. Polar Molecules

26. Lewis Structures – Covalent Molecules Once the Lewis structure has been obtained, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion approach can be used to predict the shape of the molecule and its polarity. CO 2 has polar carbon to oxygen bonds. Even though the bonds are polar, the molecule is non-polar because of its linear shape.

27. Polarity of Molecules Since CO 2 is a linear molecule, the dipoles cancel out, and the molecule is non-polar.

28. Polarity of Molecules Water also has polar bonds, and a bent shape. As a result, water is a polar molecule.

29. Polarity of Molecules The polarity of molecules has a profound effect on the properties and behavior of a substance. It will affect solubility, melting and boiling points, and other important aspects of molecular behavior.

30. The Continuum of Bond Types Metal and a non-metalBetween non-metals

31. Lewis Structures – Covalent Molecules For elements in period 2, the non-metals generally share enough valence electrons so that each atom obtains the same number of valence electrons as neon (a total of eight electrons). This may involve making multiple (double or triple) bonds between atoms.

32. Exceptions to the Octet “Rule” The elements B and Be sometimes form compounds with less than four electrons pairs on them. The are called electron deficient, and are often highly reactive. The elements in period 3 and below may accommodate more than four electron pairs.

33. Practice Write Lewis dot diagrams for CO, NH 3 and CO 2 Write Lewis dot diagrams for CO, NH 3 and CO 2

34. Resonance Some molecules may have more than one valid Lewis structure. These structures differ in the placement of multiple bonds. In molecules with resonance, none of the Lewis structures accurately represents the true bonding in the molecule.

35. Resonance The molecule SO 2 has two resonance structures: [ O=S-O: ] ↔ [ :O-S=O] The molecule has two equivalent bonds between sulfur and oxygen. : : : : : : : : ::

36. Resonance The sulfur-oxygen bonds are identical- longer than double bonds, and shorter than single bonds. [ O=S-O: ] ↔ [ :O-S=O] The true structure of the molecule is in between the two Lewis structures drawn. : : : : : : : : ::

37. Formal Charges Formal charge is a way to keep track of the electrons in a covalent molecule. The formal charges can also be used to determine if one Lewis structure is more valid than another.

38. Formal Charges The formal charge on an atom is a comparison between the number of valence electrons on each atom and the number of electrons it has in the Lewis structure.

39. Formal Charges Consider the ion SCN -1. There are three valid Lewis structures for the ion. [:S=C=N:] ↔ [:S-C N:] ↔ [:S C-N:] Formal charges can be used to determine the major contributor(s) to the actual structure of the ion. ::: : : :

40. Formal Charges Divide the bonds in half and determine the number of electrons on each atom. [:S=C=N:] ↔ [:S-C N:] ↔ [:S C-N:] 6e 4e 6e 7e 4e 5e 5e 4e 7e 6e 4e 6e 7e 4e 5e 5e 4e 7e ::: : : :

41. Formal Charges Compare the number of electrons in the structure to the number of valence electrons. [:S=C=N:] ↔ [:S-C N:] ↔ [:S C-N:] 6e 4e 6e 7e 4e 5e 5e 4e 7e 6e 4e 6e 7e 4e 5e 5e 4e 7e 6e 4e 5e 6e 4e 5e 6e 4e 5e 6e 4e 5e 6e 4e 5e 6e 4e 5e ::: : : :

42. Formal Charges The net charge is the formal charge on each atom. 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 +1 0 -2 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 +1 0 -2 [:S=C=N:] ↔ [:S-C N:] ↔ [:S C-N:] 6e 4e 6e 7e 4e 5e 5e 4e 7e 6e 4e 6e 7e 4e 5e 5e 4e 7e 6e 4e 5e 6e 4e 5e 6e 4e 5e 6e 4e 5e 6e 4e 5e 6e 4e 5e ::: : : :

43. Formal Charges The net charge is the formal charge on each atom. 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 +1 0 -2 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 +1 0 -2 [:S=C=N:] ↔ [:S-C N:] ↔ [:S C-N:] The sum of the formal charges must equal the charge on the ion. ::: : : :

44. Formal Charges There are two rules used to determine the most likely Lewis structure(s). 1. Atoms try to achieve formal charges as close to zero as possible. 2. Any negative formal charges should reside on the most electronegative atoms.

45. Formal Charges The third Lewis structure is unlikely, due to the high formal charge on nitrogen. 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 +1 0 -2 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 +1 0 -2 [:S=C=N:] ↔ [:S-C N:] ↔ [:S C-N:] Since nitrogen is more electronegative than sulfur, the first structure should be the major contributor. ::: : : :

46. Formal Charges The actual molecule will be somewhere in between the first and second structures. 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 +1 0 -2 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 +1 0 -2 [:S=C=N:] ↔ [:S-C N:] ↔ [:S C-N:] The sulfur-carbon bond should be slightly longer than a double bond, and the carbon- nitrogen bond should be slightly shorter than a double bond. ::: : : :

47. Exceptions to the Octet “Rule” Write Lewis structures for SF 6 and H 2 SO 4. Be sure to include any resonance structures and formal charges (if applicable).

48. Exceptions to the Octet “Rule” In addition, some molecules, such as NO or NO 2, have an odd number of electrons and do not obey the octet rule.

49. Average Bond Energies The bond energy is the energy required to break 1 mole of a specific bond in the gaseous phase. Since bond breaking always requires energy, bond energies are positive quantities. Average bond energies are tabulated. The value in the tables represents the average energies of a specific bond type ( ex. C-H) in several different compounds.

50. Average Bond Energies

51. Note that multiple bonds are stronger than single bonds. Elemental nitrogen, with a triple bond, has a very high bond energy.

53. Bond Lengths Bond length is the average internuclear distance of two atoms bonded together in a molecule. Covalent bonds typically vibrate around an optimum internuclear distance where the system has its lowest energy. Multiple bonds are shorter than single bonds.

54. Average Bond Lengths

55. Predicting Molecular Shapes Once the Lewis structure has been obtained, it is possible to predict the molecular shape and polarity. Examine the central atom in the molecule, and add the number of atoms attached plus any lone pairs of electrons. This will be used to determine the electron-domain geometry, and eventually, the molecular geometry.

56. Predicting Molecular Shapes The orbitals on the central atom will form a shape that minimizes repulsion between the bonds and any lone pairs. For two atoms attached to a central atom, such as CO 2, a linear molecule results.

57. Predicting Molecular Shapes

58. If the two non-central atoms are identical, the molecule will be non-polar.

59. Predicting Molecular Shapes If the two non-central atoms are identical, the molecule will be non-polar.

60. Predicting Molecular Shapes Three electron pairs results in a trigonal planar arrangement, with 120 o bond angles. If the non-central atoms are identical, a non-polar molecule results.

61. Predicting Molecular Shapes

62. If there are two atoms and a lone pair of electrons on the central atom, a bent molecule results. The electron-domain geometry is trigonal planar, but one corner is occupied by the lone pair of electrons. The bent molecule will be polar with a bond angle slightly less than 120 o.

63. Predicting Molecular Shapes A central atom with four atoms attached takes on the shape of a tetrahedron. All bond angles are 109.5 o. An example is methane, CH 4, a non-polar molecule.

64. Predicting Molecular Shapes

65. A central atom with four atoms attached takes on the shape of a tetrahedron. All bond angles are 109.5 o. An example is methane, CH 4, a non-polar molecule.

66. The Tetrahedron A tetrahedron can be viewed as the central atom located in the center of a cube, with the four attached atoms pointing to opposite corners of a cube.

67. Predicting Molecular Shapes The central atom may contain lone pairs instead of attached atoms. Since lone pairs of electrons aren’t visible, the resulting shape changes. Ammonia, NH 3, has three atoms and one lone pair on the central nitrogen atom.

68. Predicting Molecular Shapes The resulting shape of ammonia is a trigonal pyramid. The bond angles will be slightly less than 109.5 o. The molecule is polar.

69. Predicting Molecular Shapes The bond angles decrease to 107 o due to repulsion of the lone pair of electrons.

70. Predicting Bond Angles Lone pairs (or non-bonding pairs) of electrons are more spread out than bonding pairs. As a result, they tend to force the bonds a bit closer together.

71. Predicting Molecular Shapes The central oxygen atom in water has two hydrogen atoms attached and two lone pairs of electrons.

72. Predicting Molecular Shapes The water molecule is bent, with an angle of 104.5 o. The molecule is polar.

73. Predicting Molecular Shapes The bonds in water are forced closer together due to the presence of the two lone pairs of electrons on oxygen. The resulting molecule is bent, or “V”-shaped.

74. Lone Pairs and Bond Angles TetrahedralTrigonalBent Pyramidal

75. Predicting Molecular Shapes Atoms in period 3 and below may have 5 or 6 electron pairs around them. The shape for 5 electron pairs (atoms + lone pairs) is a trigonal bipyramid.

76. Predicting Molecular Shapes Shapes based on 5 electron pairs

77. Predicting Molecular Shapes Note that lone pairs of electrons occupy the trigonal plane preferentially. This minimizes repulsions within the molecule.

78. Predicting Molecular Shapes Molecules with a total of 6 atoms + lone pairs on the central atom adopt an octahedral shape. Bond angles are 90 o.

79. Predicting Molecular Shapes