1. Research Methods in Mass Communications Periods of Empirical Research - - - Spring 2009

2. Three Periods of Empirical Research oPeriod # 1 -- Direct Effects Period (1925-1940s) oPeriod # 2 -- Limited Effects Period (1940-1965) oPeriod # 3 -- New Era... (1965-present)

3. Period #1 Direct Effects Approach (1925-1941) -- Hypodermic Needle Theory -- Bullet Theory -- Target Audience -- S - R Model (Stimulus/Response) Emphasis on SOURCE... Propaganda Hitler

4. Characteristics Motivated by Social Actions Enormous faith in rational analysis Audience is large, dumb and captive Effects are “Direct” Power of Media lies in “effectiveness” of its message glittering generalities, card stacking, plainfolks, endorsements, name-calling Payne Fund Studies—shift to limited effects

5. Period # 2 Limited Effects Period (1940-1965) War affected change... “Soldier Studies” Lazarsfeld, Berelson, Gaudet, etc. Film: Battle of Britain Persuasion/Attitude Change S - M - R Model... focus on “R” People’s Choice... Voter Studies... Erie County, PA in 1940 elections.... developed two- step flow theory... opinion leaders concept

6. Selective Exposure –Selective Perception, Selective Retention Reinforcement Theory... Joseph Klapper Cognitive Dissonance/Balance Theories Most Research done in Establishment Settings.... many mediating factors LIMITED PREDICTABILITY... Ended in 60’s as focus shifted to the PROCESS OF COMMUNICATIONS

7. Period #3... New Era (1965 - present) Focus on total S - M - R model World was now fairly stable... multiple reasons/explanations for effects of media Learning studies Agenda-Setting studies Uses & Gratifications studies

8. Diffusion research Socialization research we are now studying mass comm research in variety of contexts in order to explain it in many ways... the world is a dynamic, changing place... many reasons/motivations affecting it... PURPOSES OF MEDIA IN SOCIETY