2. Origin of Stars Big Bang vs. Creation Solar System: Evidence of Design Age of the Cosmos Are we being told all the evidence or just selected information to support a particular idea? Cosmology

3. The Origin of Stars The Bible Earth created on day 1 The sun, moon, and stars on day 4 Evolution Stars evolved billions of years before the earth Evolution Stars evolved billions of years before the earth Theistic evolution Stars evolved billions of years before the earth Theistic evolution Stars evolved billions of years before the earth

4. Is this statement consistent with the Bible? Hugh Ross (Astronomer), “Species Development: Natural Process or Divine Action,” Audiotape (Pasadena, CA: Reasons to Believe, 1990). The Origin of Stars “The entire process of stellar evolution is by natural process alone. We do not have to invoke Divine intervention at any stage in the history of the life-cycle of the stars that we observe.”

5. When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained; Psalms 8:3 When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained; Psalms 8:3

6. u And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also. (Genesis 1:16) u Lift up your eyes on high, and behold who hath created these things, that bringeth out their host by number:… (Isaiah 40:26) u And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also. (Genesis 1:16) u Lift up your eyes on high, and behold who hath created these things, that bringeth out their host by number:… (Isaiah 40:26) The Origin of Stars

7. u By the word of the Lord were the heavens made; and all the host of them. (Ps 33:6) u Praise him, sun and moon, praise him, all you shining stars….for he commanded and they were created. (Ps 148:3-5) u Thou, even thou, are Lord alone; thou hast made heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all their host… (Nehemiah 9:6) u By the word of the Lord were the heavens made; and all the host of them. (Ps 33:6) u Praise him, sun and moon, praise him, all you shining stars….for he commanded and they were created. (Ps 148:3-5) u Thou, even thou, are Lord alone; thou hast made heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all their host… (Nehemiah 9:6) The Origin of Stars

8. Astronomy…stars u Astronomy is the study of the stars. u The brightness of the stars is referred to as its magnitude….the colour is determined by the temperature u Apparent magnitude- this is how bright a star appears to those on Earth u Dimmer stars have higher magnitudes u Brighter stars have lower or negative magnitudes u Astronomy is the study of the stars. u The brightness of the stars is referred to as its magnitude….the colour is determined by the temperature u Apparent magnitude- this is how bright a star appears to those on Earth u Dimmer stars have higher magnitudes u Brighter stars have lower or negative magnitudes

9. Apparent magnitude u It is actually measured on logarithmic scale u A one unit change –changes the brightness by a factor of 2.5…confused! Ask the maths teacher! u TWO factors determine a stars apparent magnitude: n How much light a star emits n The distance between the star and Earth 1. Greater the distance the dimmer the star appears-therefore the effect of distance must not be counted in the measurement. u It is actually measured on logarithmic scale u A one unit change –changes the brightness by a factor of 2.5…confused! Ask the maths teacher! u TWO factors determine a stars apparent magnitude: n How much light a star emits n The distance between the star and Earth 1. Greater the distance the dimmer the star appears-therefore the effect of distance must not be counted in the measurement.

10. Distances between stars! u Too hard to measure in km due to vast distances u Astronomers use light years- the distance taken for light to travel in a year= 9.5 trillion km u Sometimes they use parsec- this is equivalent to 3.26 light –years. u Do the activity pg 216 u Too hard to measure in km due to vast distances u Astronomers use light years- the distance taken for light to travel in a year= 9.5 trillion km u Sometimes they use parsec- this is equivalent to 3.26 light –years. u Do the activity pg 216

11. Parallax u The parsec is based on parallax- this is when you see different views of the same object u We can use parallax to measure the distance between the stars and the sun u As the earth moves around the sun our changing point of view means the position of the stars changes very slightly u The parsec is based on parallax- this is when you see different views of the same object u We can use parallax to measure the distance between the stars and the sun u As the earth moves around the sun our changing point of view means the position of the stars changes very slightly

12. Absolute Magnitude u This is how the actual brightness of a star is measured u This is how bright a star would appear if it was a distance of 10 parsecs from the earth u This way we can compare the brightness of stars from different galaxies-meaningfully. u This is how the actual brightness of a star is measured u This is how bright a star would appear if it was a distance of 10 parsecs from the earth u This way we can compare the brightness of stars from different galaxies-meaningfully.

13. Colour of stars u Stars emit different wavelengths of light u Some is in the visible spectrum or electromagnetic spectrum u When your eyes collect visible light your brain performs a very complex process to determine the colour of a star! u Scientists prefer to analyse the light by viewing it through coloured filters- it can then be precisely measured u Stars emit different wavelengths of light u Some is in the visible spectrum or electromagnetic spectrum u When your eyes collect visible light your brain performs a very complex process to determine the colour of a star! u Scientists prefer to analyse the light by viewing it through coloured filters- it can then be precisely measured

14. Colour… u A stars spectrum is determined by the surface temperature u Cooler stars emit mainly infra-red and therefore are red in colour u Hotter stars are generally Blue u Medium stars are usually yellow, white or orange u Starlight is analysed using a spectrometer- this splits light into a spectrum to reveal its component colours. u A stars spectrum is determined by the surface temperature u Cooler stars emit mainly infra-red and therefore are red in colour u Hotter stars are generally Blue u Medium stars are usually yellow, white or orange u Starlight is analysed using a spectrometer- this splits light into a spectrum to reveal its component colours.

15. Chemical elements stars u Sometimes lines appear in a stars spectrum- these relate to the elements present in a particular star u Certain elements emit colours of particular wavelengths- these can be measured to determine the elements in that star u Sometimes there are also dark lines or missing colours… u The lines are due to the light interacting with atoms in the outer layers of the stars u Sometimes lines appear in a stars spectrum- these relate to the elements present in a particular star u Certain elements emit colours of particular wavelengths- these can be measured to determine the elements in that star u Sometimes there are also dark lines or missing colours… u The lines are due to the light interacting with atoms in the outer layers of the stars

16. Contd: u The light energy gets absorbed by the electrons in the atoms in all the elements of the outer in the outer gas layers u Each electron will absorb different wavelength…and emit different colours u Scientists have created a classification system called spectral class which indicates the elements present, the temp and colour of a star…table pg 218 u It is nuclear fusion that keeps stars at such high temps u The light energy gets absorbed by the electrons in the atoms in all the elements of the outer in the outer gas layers u Each electron will absorb different wavelength…and emit different colours u Scientists have created a classification system called spectral class which indicates the elements present, the temp and colour of a star…table pg 218 u It is nuclear fusion that keeps stars at such high temps

17. Nuclear Fusion u Stars are ¾ hydrogen u ¼ helium and iron and other heavy elements u Gravitational forces are said to be what heats up a star to such high temperaturesin the centre…at such temps the electrons cant stay bound to protons so the material takes on a “soupy” state of + ve charged ions and free electrons- Plasma u Read pg 219 or the photocopy of this page u Stars are ¾ hydrogen u ¼ helium and iron and other heavy elements u Gravitational forces are said to be what heats up a star to such high temperaturesin the centre…at such temps the electrons cant stay bound to protons so the material takes on a “soupy” state of + ve charged ions and free electrons- Plasma u Read pg 219 or the photocopy of this page

18. Lifecycle of a Star u Early in the 20 th century……Hertzsprung and Russel came up with plotting stars on a diagram….and noticed they fell into a number of clearly defined groups u Demonstrated the relationship between temp and brightness u Also showed stars went from one type to another- lifecycle of a star u Early in the 20 th century……Hertzsprung and Russel came up with plotting stars on a diagram….and noticed they fell into a number of clearly defined groups u Demonstrated the relationship between temp and brightness u Also showed stars went from one type to another- lifecycle of a star

19. Structure of stars u Star structure determined by the balance of opposing forces-gravity and radiation pressure u Gravity pulling material inwards and radiation forces generated by the heat of nuclear fusion u In most stars these forces are in equilibrium u They give a star, when balanced a constant radius and brightness- this last years until the hydrogen runs out u Star structure determined by the balance of opposing forces-gravity and radiation pressure u Gravity pulling material inwards and radiation forces generated by the heat of nuclear fusion u In most stars these forces are in equilibrium u They give a star, when balanced a constant radius and brightness- this last years until the hydrogen runs out

20. Red Giants u When the hydrogen of a medium star burns out- fusion stops- gravity makes it collapse inwards- outer layers fuse- the heat from the fusion produces radiation pressure-outer layers expand and cool u The outer layer fusion occurs at lower temperatures than normal stars so emits more light in the red spectrum- giving the star its distinct colour u These red giants last for about 100 million years- when this runs out the star collapses further- becomes a cloud of gas-planetry nebula u When the hydrogen of a medium star burns out- fusion stops- gravity makes it collapse inwards- outer layers fuse- the heat from the fusion produces radiation pressure-outer layers expand and cool u The outer layer fusion occurs at lower temperatures than normal stars so emits more light in the red spectrum- giving the star its distinct colour u These red giants last for about 100 million years- when this runs out the star collapses further- becomes a cloud of gas-planetry nebula

21. Nebula- and dwarfs! u Nebula will disperse to reveal hot dense carbon and hydrogen- the remains of a red giant- fades, becomes dense –white dwarf stars u Still very hot, but dimmer than the red giant from which it formed u No nuclear fusion occurs on a white dwarf- it fades, cools becomes a dark ball of inert matter- BLACK DWARF u Nebula will disperse to reveal hot dense carbon and hydrogen- the remains of a red giant- fades, becomes dense –white dwarf stars u Still very hot, but dimmer than the red giant from which it formed u No nuclear fusion occurs on a white dwarf- it fades, cools becomes a dark ball of inert matter- BLACK DWARF

22. SUPER GIANTS/SUPER NOVA u Stars 10 or more times larger than the sun u As so hot- generally known as blue super giants u Burn hydrogen at a very fast rate u Eventually use up all their fuel and become spectacular supernova u SUPERNOVA-all the fuel of the supergiant turns into iron/heavy elements through fusion-star cools- collapses in on itself-as it hits the core it rebounds in a massive explosion- supernova- most of the mass blown into space u Stars 10 or more times larger than the sun u As so hot- generally known as blue super giants u Burn hydrogen at a very fast rate u Eventually use up all their fuel and become spectacular supernova u SUPERNOVA-all the fuel of the supergiant turns into iron/heavy elements through fusion-star cools- collapses in on itself-as it hits the core it rebounds in a massive explosion- supernova- most of the mass blown into space

23. He determines the number of the stars and calls them each by name. (Psalm 147:4) He determines the number of the stars and calls them each by name. (Psalm 147:4)

24. Stellar lifecycle

26. Nebular solar system formation

27. Nebula Gas and dust clouds will expand NOT contract Star Formation and Physics The popular theory is that stars form from vast clouds of gas and dust through gravitational contraction.

28. Don DeYoung (Ph.D. in Physics), Astronomy and the Bible, 2000, p. 84. continued Star Formation “The complete birth of a star has never been observed. The principles of physics demand some special conditions for star formation and also for a long time period. A cloud of hydrogen gas must be compressed to a sufficiently small size so that gravity dominates.

29. Fred Whipple, The Mystery of Comets, (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1985), pp. 211, 213. Star Formation “Precisely how a section of an interstellar cloud collapses gravitationally into a star … is still a challenging theoretical problem… Astronomers have yet to find an interstellar cloud in the actual process of collapse.”

30. Danny Faulkner, Ph.D. Astronomy Star Formation continued “Most astronomers believe that the clouds gradually contract under their own weight to form stars. This process has never been observed, but if it did occur, it would take many human lifetimes.

31. It is known that clouds do not spontaneously collapse to form stars. The clouds possess considerable mass, but they are so large that their gravity is very feeble. Any decrease in size would be met by an increase in gas pressure that would cause a cloud to re-expand.”

32. Hannes Alfven (Nobel prize winner), Gustaf Arrhenius, “Evolution of the Solar System”, NASA, 1976, p. 480. Star Formation “There is general belief that stars are forming by gravitational collapse; in spite of vigorous efforts no one has yet found any observational indication of conformation. Thus the ‘generally accepted’ theory of stellar formation may be one of a hundred unsupported dogmas which constitute a large part of present-day astrophysics.”

33. Supernova and Star Birth

34. Charles Lada and Frank Shu (both astronomers), “The Formation of Sunlike Stars,” Science, 1990, p. 572. Star Formation “Despite numerous efforts, we have yet to directly observe the process of stellar formation…. The origin of stars represents one of the fundamental unsolved problems of contemporary astrophysics.”

35. Eagle nebula Do pictures confirm stars are forming? Star Nurseries

36. Martin Rees (A leading researcher on cosmic evolution), Before the Beginning, 1998, p. 19. “Stars are still forming today. About 1500 light-years away lies the Orion Nebula: enough gas and dust to make millions of stars…. It even contains protostars that are still condensing …”

37. Images taken by the European Southern Observatory Very Large Telescope in January 2002 of the Horsehead Nebula in Orion verified that the structures are Star Formation and Nebula

38. Star Nurseries Ron Cowen, “Rethinking an Astronomical Icon: The Eagle’s EGG, Not So Fertile,” Science News, Vol. 161, 16 March 2002, pp. 171–172. What did they find? “NASA’s claim in 1995 that these pictures showed hundreds to thousands of stars forming was based on the speculative ‘EGG- star formation theory.’ It has recently been tested independently with two infrared detectors that can see inside the dusty pillars.

39. Few stars were there, and 85% of the pillars had too little dust and gas to support star formation. ‘The new findings also highlight how much astronomers still have to learn about star formation.’” No star nurseries

40.  200 billion stars per galaxy (2x10 11 )  Universe 20 billion years old (2x10 10 )  200 billion stars per galaxy (2x10 11 )  Universe 20 billion years old (2x10 10 ) 100 Billion x 200 Billion 20 billion 1 trillion stars per year  2.7 billion stars per day  31,700 stars per second  100 billion galaxies (10 11 ) Star Formation and Time

41. “The truth is that we don’t understand star formation at a fundamental level.” Abraham Loeb, (Harvard Center for Astrophysics), quoted by Marcus Chown, “Let there be Light”, New Scientist, Feb 7, 1998, Conclusion on Star Formation

42. Heavens Declare Sun

43. Our Sun: Mediocre? “Who are we? What are we? We find that we live on an insignificant planet of a humdrum star lost in a galaxy tucked away in some forgotten corner of a universe in which there are far more galaxies than people.” Carl Sagan

44. A Special Place Type G: only 9 percent of all stars. About 80 percent of all stars are Class M, which flare often and would kill us from radiation.

46. Designed Just for Us u If too massive: would be unstable. If not massive enough: Earth would have to be too close, would be tidally locked. u Its position in the galaxy is vital for life. Its galactic orbit is more nearly circular than about 80 percent of nearby stars.

47. About 85 Percent of Stars are in Binary or Multiple Systems

48. Binary star system

49. Sun Flares

50. Unusually Quiet and Gentle u One recent 30-year study: photosphere is “constant in temperature” u “Sun-like stars normally produce a bright superflare about once a century…Why a superflare has not occurred on the Sun in recorded history is unclear. ‘I think a consensus is emerging that our Sun is extraordinarily stable’, suggests Galen Gisler, an astronomer at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico.” ‘Thank our lucky star’, New Scientist, 161(2168):15, 1999

51. Sun power and size video

52. The Early Faint Sun Paradox u The Sun is burning by thermonuclear reactions. Over time, this changes the composition of the core of the Sun, and alters its temperature. u If the Sun is 4.6 billion years old, it should have brightened by nearly 40% over this time. u Life supposedly arose 3.8 billion years ago. Back then, the Sun would have been 25% dimmer.

53. Faint Sun Paradox cont’d u The average temperature on Earth would have been about 30 degrees F: below the freezing point of water. u Earth would have been an ice planet. u Yet evolutionists believe the average temperature of Earth hasn’t changed. u Of course, this isn’t a problem if the Sun is really thousands of years old.

54. The Early Faint Sun Paradox  Energy by thermonuclear fusion  The core of the sun should alter and the sun should grow brighter with age  If the sun is 4.6 billion years old, it should have brightened by about 40% 40% Brighter

55. The Early Faint Sun Paradox Earth average temperature (59 O F or 15 O C) A 25% increase in brightness increases the average temperature by about 32 O F (18 O C) (59 o – 32 o = 27 o F (-2.78 o C) Avg. temp

56. After some thoughts about the sun……final notes before galaxies Neutron stars-if a supernova leaves behind material greater than the mass of our sun…..the gravitational forces are strong enough to cause the atoms to break down-electrons and protons combine to form neutrons- neutron stars are very dense.. Black holes- sometimes a neutron star does not form the collapse of a supernova continues until a black hole results

57. Black holes due to strong gravitational forces no light escapes a black hole Hard to detect because there is no light Sometimes if there is a star behind a black hole the force in the black hole bends the stars light to give the impression of an identical star on either side of the black hole- identifying there is a black hole! Human endeavour-pg 225 + prac pg 227

58. V838 Mon The Alternative

59. Chris Ashcraft Northwest Creation Network www.nwcreation.net

60. Galaxy Formation M51 The Whirlpool Galaxy Spiral Galaxy M101

62. Formation of Galaxies “Many aspects of the evolution of galaxies cannot yet be determined with any certainty.” Joseph Silk (Professor of Astronomy at the University of Oxford), The Big Bang, 2001, p. 195.

63. Galaxies “There shouldn’t be galaxies out there at all, and even if there are galaxies,… The problem of explaining the existence of galaxies has proved to be one of the thorniest in cosmology.” “There shouldn’t be galaxies out there at all, and even if there are galaxies,… The problem of explaining the existence of galaxies has proved to be one of the thorniest in cosmology.” James Trefil, Ph.D. Physics, The Dark Side of the Universe, 1988, p. 3 & 55.

64. Galaxies u Cosmology- the study of the entire universe u In the fourth century Democritus a Greek philosopher suggested that the Milky way was made of distant stars u Wasn’t until the 17 th century and Galileo that this theory was accepted u We now know the Milky way is one of many galaxies u It has between 200 to 400 billion stars u Cosmology- the study of the entire universe u In the fourth century Democritus a Greek philosopher suggested that the Milky way was made of distant stars u Wasn’t until the 17 th century and Galileo that this theory was accepted u We now know the Milky way is one of many galaxies u It has between 200 to 400 billion stars

65. Measuring galaxy distances u Due to the vast distances between galaxies the parallax method is not appropriate u The Cepheid method is used- a Cepheid is a star that has variable brightness- It varies from bright to dark and bright again u The period of variation is directly related to the absolute magnitude of the star u To measure from one galaxy to another the Cepheid variable inside the galaxy is identified, the period of variation is then measured and the absolute magnitude of the star can be determined- this is compared to the apparent magnitude, the distance to the star and the galaxy can then be calculated u Due to the vast distances between galaxies the parallax method is not appropriate u The Cepheid method is used- a Cepheid is a star that has variable brightness- It varies from bright to dark and bright again u The period of variation is directly related to the absolute magnitude of the star u To measure from one galaxy to another the Cepheid variable inside the galaxy is identified, the period of variation is then measured and the absolute magnitude of the star can be determined- this is compared to the apparent magnitude, the distance to the star and the galaxy can then be calculated

66. Steady state model u 50 years ago the steady state or infinite universe model was popular u This believed/stated that the universe is infinite-to the point that it is now what is was and will be in the future u By the 1970’s it was rejected-the Hubble telescope helped us discover the universe was expanding-the light from distant galaxies was distorted in what was know as the red shift u 50 years ago the steady state or infinite universe model was popular u This believed/stated that the universe is infinite-to the point that it is now what is was and will be in the future u By the 1970’s it was rejected-the Hubble telescope helped us discover the universe was expanding-the light from distant galaxies was distorted in what was know as the red shift

67. Cont:….. u This means the wavelengths of light were all lengthened slightly making the light redder than normal u Light from stars in nearby galaxies moving towards us will be blue shifted and those moving away red shifted..this added support to the theory when discovered u Hubble’s measurements contained two important observations:- u This means the wavelengths of light were all lengthened slightly making the light redder than normal u Light from stars in nearby galaxies moving towards us will be blue shifted and those moving away red shifted..this added support to the theory when discovered u Hubble’s measurements contained two important observations:-

68. Hubble u 1. most all galaxies are moving away from the Milky Way u 2. the further away a galaxy is the more light is red shifted…..this means that more distant galaxies are moving away faster than the closer ones are… u Together these observations suggest the universe is expanding u It is this conclusion that scientist use to support the Big Bang theory… u 1. most all galaxies are moving away from the Milky Way u 2. the further away a galaxy is the more light is red shifted…..this means that more distant galaxies are moving away faster than the closer ones are… u Together these observations suggest the universe is expanding u It is this conclusion that scientist use to support the Big Bang theory…

69. Big Bang Theory u If the universe is expanding then it is believed that at some point all matter was condensed…at one point an enormous explosion of energy then occurred…”the Big Bang” u See ? Pg 233 and then read Human endeavour pg 234 or the photocopy form your teacher u Practical-pg 236 u If the universe is expanding then it is believed that at some point all matter was condensed…at one point an enormous explosion of energy then occurred…”the Big Bang” u See ? Pg 233 and then read Human endeavour pg 234 or the photocopy form your teacher u Practical-pg 236

70. Galaxy Formation “Galaxies must have condensed out of the gases expanding from the big bang…. Details of the formation of galaxies are still highly uncertain, as is their subsequent evolution.” “Galaxies must have condensed out of the gases expanding from the big bang…. Details of the formation of galaxies are still highly uncertain, as is their subsequent evolution.” The Facts on File Dictionary of Astronomy, 1994, p. 172. Why is this any more scientific than: In the beginning God created…