1. Higher Education for Sustainable Development: Public or Private Good?

2. What is Public Good Role of Govt in allocating resources
Sandy Baum and Michael McPherson (2011) look at two characteristics :
Non-excludability (non-payers cannot be excluded from consuming the good)
Non-Rivalry in consumption (benefits to others are not diminished because others are consuming)

3. Education as a Public Good
The public benefits from people getting higher education
Often earn more money and pay more taxes
Become active citizens in a democracy
Innovation generates new products and services for all
Benefits shared by participants and rest of society
Therefore, the cost of public higher education to be borne by the state
Subsidies/Subventions
Grants
Loans

4. Higher Education as a Private Good
Benefits accrue solely to the individual and provides no public good
Many taxpayers who do not attend or use public funds do not benefit
Waste of public funds to support to support programmes that would contribute to graduate unemployment

5. Ghana’s Triple Heritage of Education
Traditional/African Education
Islamic/Arabic Education
Christian/European Education

6. Higher Education in Ghana: Public Good or Private Good?
Who should provide higher education?
Individuals?
Families?
Communities?
Religious institutions?
Government (i.e., the state)?
Non-Government Organizations?

7. Christianity and European Formal Education in Ghana
Formal education starts with the European Christian Missionaries
Castle schools to train children of Europeans & mulattos
Train and convert Africans

8. Early Missionary Schools
Akropong Teacher Training College [Boys], Akropong (Basel Mission-Presbyterian), 1848
Mfantsipim [Boys], Cape Coast (Wesleyan Mission-- Methodist), 1876
Adisadel College [Boys], Cape Coast (Church of England- -Anglican), 1910
Wesley College [Boys], Kumasi (Wesleyan Mission- Methodist), 1924
Ola Training College [Girls], Cape Coast (Roman Catholic- Our Lady of Apostles), 1926
St. Augustine’s College [Boys], Cape Coast (Roman Catholic Mission), 1930
Odomase Krobo Secondary School [Mixed], Krobo (Basel Mission-Presbyterian), 1938

9. Achimota College: Departure from Missionary Education
Established 1924 by the Colonial government and formally opened in 1927
An elite  secondary school based on the British model of public education
Publicly-funded by Government
Interdenominational, with students and staff practicing their own denomination of Christianity.

10. Full Fledge Public Education
Vision – to train boys and girls to be at ease in both traditional culture and western settings.
Full kindergarten, primary, secondary, intermediate and teacher training
Engineering and external degree courses from University of London
An instrument for controlling and directing the future of the country through changing people’s behavior and ideas

11. Missionary Schools Cont’d
Aggrey Memorial College [Mixed], Cape Coast, founded in 1940; named changed to Aggrey Memorial A.M.E. Zion Secondary School in 1947 (African Methodist Episcopal)
Holy Child Secondary School [Girls], Cape Coast (Roman Catholic), 1946
Prempeh College [Boys], Kumasi (Methodist-Presbyterian), 1949
T.I. Ahamadiyya Secondary School [Mixed], Kumasi (Ahmadiyya Movement-Muslim), 1951
Opoku Ware School [Boys], Kumasi (Roman Catholic), 1952
Holy Child Training College [Girls], Tarkoradi (Roman Catholic), 1955
SDA Teacher Training College [Mixed], Bekwai (Adventists)

12. Birth of Public Universities in Ghana
Achimota College gave birth to the first two public universities in Ghana
University of Ghana (1948)
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology (1961)

13. Is Higher Education in Ghana a Public Good?
James Cemmel examines the broad functions of Higher Education
Research (development of new knowledge)
Teaching (training of highly qualified personnel)
Extension services (Working/providing services in the community)
Ethical function (Social criticism)

14. University of Ghana, Legon
Founded in 1948 as the University College of London to provide university education, learning, and research in the then British colony. The original emphasis was on the liberal arts, social sciences, basic science, agriculture, and medicine

15. Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Established in 1961 to provide higher education in science and technology for the technological development of the country

16. University of Cape Coast
Established in with a mandate to train highly qualified and skilled teachers and administrators, especially for the Ghana Education Service

17. University for Development Studies
Established in 1992 as a multi-campus institution with a mission to blend the academic world with that of the community for the total development of northern Ghana

18. University of Education, Winneba
Established in 1992 for teacher education for second-cycle institutions

19. Demand for Higher Education in Ghana
UNESCO estimates that in Ghana, only 2.6% of all children who enter primary schools eventually make it to the tertiary level
Today, the demand for higher education in the country is very high resulting is a rapid increase in enrollment
Enrollments in Ghana’s national universities have increased significantly in the last two decades following the publication of the University Rationalization Report in 1988
Still, Ghanaian public universities can only offer admissions to about 35% of qualified applicants

20. Expanding the Structure of Higher Education in Ghana
The term Tertiary Education is adopted in 1992 in the 4th Republic of Ghana
The new Constitution established the National Council for Tertiary Education (NCTE)
Higher Education expanded to include ALL post-secondary educational institutions:
Universities
University Colleges
Polytechnics
Professional Institutions
NCTE becomes the advisory body on tertiary education to the Minister of Education
A Minister of State for Tertiary Education was appointed in 2003

21. Ghana’s Road to Privatization of Higher Education
Under the Education Sector Reform of the country’s Economic Recovery Program of the late 1980s, private providers were given official permission to establish institutions of higher education
The National Accreditation Board (NAB) was established in to accredit both public and private tertiary institutions for contents, standards, and management
Religious organizations and individual have embarked on efforts to establish private colleges and universities
Between 1995 and 2007, the NAB has accredited 25 private universities and colleges, 70% of which are religious-based
With the exception of the Islamic University College, all of the private religious institutions of higher education are Christian- sponsored

22. Why Proliferation of Private Religious Higher Education in Ghana?
To increase access to qualified individuals who do not gain admission to the traditional public universities
To provide quality and practically-oriented education in the African cultural context
To focus on Theology, Business-related, and ICT courses
To train individuals to assume leadership roles in the various religious organizations
To address indiscipline in the society
Strengthen spiritual development to counteract the excesses of Western consumer culture

23. Representations of Private Religious Institutions in Ghana
Protestants
Valley View University (Seventh-Day Adventists)
Methodist University College
African Pentecostals
Central University College (International Central Gospel Church)
Roman Catholic
Catholic University College
Islamic
Islamic University College (Ahlul-Bait Foundation of Islamic Republic of Iran)

24. Contemporary Views on Religion and Educational Attainment
Religion and globalization combine to shape the social and cultural landscape of the country
African Pentecostal Christian groups and charismatic movements have grown dramatically and taken serious interest in the establishment of colleges. In 1993, while non-Catholic and non-mainline Protestant Christians accounted for just 16.9% of the population, they accounted for 41% in 2003
Of particular interest is the Pentecostals’ emphasis on “the gospel of prosperity” –elimination of poverty by stressing the importance of socioeconomic success
The development of skills and talents to find African solutions to the continent’s problems
The Muslim communities’ have began to embrace the interaction of Islamic and Western secular education for socioeconomic development
A variety of innovative efforts to address the issues of access and equity including summer remedial classes to prepare students to qualify for admission requirements, campuses in rural areas, flexible scheduling, and reduced tuition

25. Issues of Contention with Private Religious Higher Education
The meaning of secular education in religious institutions
The implications of deeply-held religious ideologies for open access and equity
The limitations of religious institution’s current focus:
Theological Studies; ICT; Business Management
Little attention to Science Courses and Faculty/Student Research
Students’ funding options for private higher education
The reinforcement of class privileges offered by fee-based private higher education for the children of the wealthy and elite
The government’s response to the demand of private religious and non-religious institution for public funding

26. Experiences With Higher Education: The Tale of Two Formerly Colonized Countries

27. Tertiary Education Strategies After Independence: Comparing Ghana & South Korea
Slow growth of public tertiary education enrollment over the years
In the late 1980s, the government formulated a reform program including:
Measures to improve the financial sustainability of the system
Increase quality and relevance
Promote enrollment expansion
Permission for private sector involvement in tertiary education
South Korea
The development of tertiary education has taken place in 4 distinct phases:
Expansion of public institutions in the 1950s with cost-sharing equivalent to 30% of expenditures,
Encouragement of private institutions with limited public funding in the 1960s (capital costs and scholarships)
Expansion of engineering and technical education to meet manpower concerns in the 1970s and 1980s
Focus on quality, R&D capacity, accountability, deregulation and performance-based funding in the 1990s.

28. Comparing Outcomes Ghana & South Korea
Enrollment ratio for the eligible cohort has stagnated at under 2%. eligible age cohort
The enrollment ratio for the eligible age cohort has skyrocketed from 5% to 80% between 1960 and 2000
Private institutions have emerged only recently and represent no more than 6% of total enrollment.
Private tertiary institutions have proliferated enrolling 85% of the total
student population in 2000
Public expenditure has been compressed drastically from $1,200
in 1990 to $850 in 2000
Public expenditure per student has gone up dramatically from $2,700 in 1990 to $4,500 in 2000
The enrollment of students in science and technology disciplines has remained
relatively constant, at about 50%
Linkages between tertiary education and industry have been relatively uncommon
The government has actively promoted university-industry partnerships
since the late 1980s

29. Knowledge Is a Key Factor in Explaining the Difference Between Poverty and Wealth

30. Can Ghana Learn From the Korean Experience?
Language development
Science and technology
Research & development
The role of foreign aid
Family financial contributions to education
The role of industry
Ensuring access for the bright but needy

31. Ghana’s New Educational Reforms, 2007
According to the government White Paper, the new reform was driven by the need to:
“…review the entire educational system in the country with a view of making it more responsive to current challenges… to examine the structure of education and to discuss issues affecting the development and delivery of education, the constrained access to different levels of the educational ladder, Information and Communication Technology and Distance Education…the crisis at the tertiary educational level, with insufficient places to meet the needs of a modernizing economy…difficulties in the development of the polytechnics within the scope of higher education, and the vexed problem of sustainable financing of the whole tertiary education sector.”

32. Sustaining Higher Educational Attainment in Ghana
Who are the beneficiaries of Higher Education today?
Is Higher Education, then a Public Good? A Private Good, or a Mixture?
How do we sustain funding for Higher Education?
The contemporary struggle in Ghana today is about social, economic, and political power; and how that socio-economic- political power is distributed in the society across the geographic, ethnic, religious, and educational divide.