1. Thinking Critically with Psychological Science Chapter 1
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2. Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
The Need for Psychological Science
The limits of Intuition and Common Sense
The Scientific Attitude
The Scientific Method
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3. Thinking Critically … Description The Case Study The Survey
Naturalistic Observation
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4. Thinking Critically … Correlation Correlation and Causation
Illusory Correlation
Perceiving Order in Random Events
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5. Thinking Critically … Experimentation Exploring Cause and Effect
Evaluating Therapies
Independent and Dependent Variables
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6. Thinking Critically … Statistical Reasoning FAQs About Psychology
Describing Data
Making Inferences
FAQs About Psychology
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7. Impression of Psychology
With hopes of satisfying curiosity, many people listen to talk-radio counselors and psychics to learn about others and themselves.
Dr. Crane (radio-shrink)
Psychic (Ball gazing)
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8. The Need for Psychological Science
Intuition & Common Sense
Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature.
Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error.
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9. Limits of Intuition
Personal interviewers may rely too much on their “gut feelings” when meeting with job applicants.
Taxi/ Getty Images
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10. Errors of Common Sense Try this ! Pennies in a cup
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11. Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon.
After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome. We only knew the dot.com stocks would plummet after they actually did plummet.
OBJECTIVE 1| Describe hindsight bias and explain how it can make research findings seem like mere common sense.
“Anything seems commonplace, once explained.” Dr. Watson to Sherlock Holmes.
Two phenomena – hindsight bias and judgmental overconfidence – illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense.
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12. Overconfidence Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know.
Anagram
How long do you think it would take to unscramble these anagrams?
WREAT
WATER
ETYRN
ENTRY
OBJECTIVE 2| Describe how overconfidence contaminates our everyday judgments.
People said it would take about 10 seconds, yet on average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).
GRABE
BARGE
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13. Psychological Science
How can we differentiate between uniformed opinions and examined conclusions?
The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and act as they do!
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14. 4 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY DESCRIBE EXPLAIN PREDICT INFLUENCE
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15. The Scientific Attitude
The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).
OBJECTIVE 3| Explain how the scientific attitude encourages critical thinking.
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16. Critical thinking does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly.
It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.
Courtesy of the James Randi Education Foundation
The Amazing Randi
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17. Scientific Method
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
OBJECTIVE 4| Describe how psychological theories guide scientific research.
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18. Psychologists Analyze Data Scientifically
Behavior must be measurable
detected by direct observation or other measuring devices
Methods and data must be objective
no opinions or bias
Scientists must be able to communicate the results of their experiment to others
Meetings, journals
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19. Guidelines cont. Procedures must be repeatable
Other scientists can do the same procedure or experiment
Must use an organized and systematic approach in gathering data
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20. The Testing Method
Reliability: a measure of consistency; must yield similar results on different testing occasions
Validity: the degree to which a test measures what it is suppose to measure
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21. For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
Theory
A Theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.
For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
If we were to observe that depressed people talk about their past, present, and future in a gloomy manner, we may theorize that low-self-esteem contributes to depression.
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22. People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.
Hypothesis
A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory.
People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.
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23. Research Observations
Research would require us to administer tests of self-esteem and depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis.
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24. Research Process
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25. Is language uniquely human?
Description
Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
OBJECTIVE 5| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of case studies in studying behavior and mental processes.
Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers
Is language uniquely human?
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26. Case Study Clinical Study
A clinical study is a form of case study in which the therapist investigates the problems associated with a client.
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27. METHODS cont. CASE-STUDY METHOD:
Study an individual’s background forces that influence their behavior (family background, home life, neighborhood, school, etc.)
ADVANTAGE:
Can exhibit individual differences and suggest hypotheses
Can study phenomena you cannot manipulate
Can generate hypotheses to be tested
DISADVANTAGE:
Information comes from family, teachers and friends of individual being studied (biased?)
Info. may be misleading
Can’t generalize nor replicate
Observer bias could be present
Cannot show causality
Psychologists can guide patients into saying what they want hear
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28. METHODS cont. INTERVIEWS: One-on-one questioning ADVANTAGE:
Develop rapport, relaxed atmosphere, questions in advance/flexibility
DISADVANTAGE:
getting rid of the personal prejudices of the interviewer, difficulty in expressing the results of an interview in exact terms
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29. METHODS cont. QUESTIONNAIRE: ADVANTAGES:
Gather facts about individuals or opinions
Answers can be treated statistically
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30. METHODS cont. TESTS I.Q. Aptitude (A.S.V.A.B.)
Achievement (A.C.T., S.A.T., M.A.P.)
ADVANTAGES:
more objective data than interviews and questionnaires
Results can be expressed in statistical terms
Scores can be compared with scores for large groups
DISADVANTAGES:
Results do not give full and final answers to individual problems
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31. Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior and mental processes, and explain the importance of wording effects and random sampling.
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32. Survey Reveals attitudes and behaviors of large sample of people
Learn about behavior and mental processes that cannot be observed in the natural setting or studied experimentally
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33. Limitations Limited generalization
Replication sensitive to sample selected
Give socially desirable answers
Exaggerated answers to foul up results
Different interviewers for different samples (gender, SES, ethnicity)
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34. Limitations (cont.) Easy to bias by Wording Effect
“Given the number of shootings in schools, should we regulate handguns? True or False
Cannot establish causal relationships
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35. Wording can change the results of a survey.
Wording Effect
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)
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36. False Consensus Effect
Survey
False Consensus Effect
A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.
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37. Samples and Populations
Example: Alf Landon defeated Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1936 poll (Roosevelt won by landslide)
- surveyed voters by phone
-during Great Depression
Wealthy->phones>Republican
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38. Samples
Must accurately represent the population they are intended to reflect.
Only representative samples allow us to generalize from research samples to populations.
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39. Sample/Population Population: a complete group of organisms or events
Sample: The individuals who are studied; part of a population
Population: a complete group of organisms or events
Infer:Draw a conclusion
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40. Problems in Generalizing
Research sample (consider gender, age, ethnicity)
Volunteer Bias
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41. Volunteer Bias
A source of bias or error in research that reflects the prospect that people who offer to participate in research studies differ systematically from people who don’t.
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42. Volunteer Bias Volunteers have more spare time than nonvolunteers
More willing to disclose intimate information
Volunteers have more spare time than nonvolunteers
How do they differ from the population at large?
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43. Problems with Generalization
Demographic variables:
-age
-education
-socioeconomic status
-marital status
-number of children
-location
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44. Survey Random Sampling
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.
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45. Question
If scientists conducted research with a “random sample” of students from Valencia, would their sample represent the general U.S. population? Why or why not?
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46. Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.
OBJECTIVE 7| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation in studying behavior and mental processes.
Courtesy of Gilda Morelli
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47. METHODS
NATURAL OBSERVATION:
Observing and recording the behavior of organisms in their natural environment.
ADVANTAGE:
description of the way organisms behave in their surroundings
DISADVANTAGE:
no information on how or why the behavior occurs
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48. METHODS cont. DIRECTED OBSERVATION:
Involves observing behavior under controlled conditions in an experimental or a laboratory setting
ADVANTAGE:
Allows for control of events and behaviors
DISADVANTAGE:
Taking an organism from its natural environment may change its behavior
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49. Descriptive Methods Summary
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation describe behaviors.
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50. Assignment
Form a hypothesis about human behavior and use the method of naturalistic observation to support/refute your hypothesis.
Write what you observed and concluded.
Ex: If there are sales, then more women than men will shop at malls.
Due MONDAY SEPTEMEBER 15
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51. longitudinal studies
A psychologist studies the same group of people at regular intervals over a period of years to determine whether their behavior and/or feelings have changed and if so, how.
Ex: Studying you when you were 5, then 10, then 15, then 20, then 25, then 30, etc…
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52. cross-sectional studies.
In this study, psychologists organize individuals into groups based on age. 
Then, these groups are randomly sampled, and the members of each group are surveyed, tested, or observed simultaneously.
Single point in time (snapshot)
Ex: IQ, memory, disease
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53. (positive or negative)
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +
0.37
OBJECTIVE 8| Describe positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures can aid the process of prediction.
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
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54. Correlational Method
Examines the extent to which two or more variables are related and can predict one another.
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55. Correlational Method Virtues:
-reveals relations of variables outside the lab
-replication possible
Limitations:
-cannot establish causal relationships because you do not manipulate the variables
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56. Correlation Coefficient
A number that varies between and -1.00
Expresses the strength and direction (+/-) of the relationship between two variables
The closer it is to 1.00 (regardless of +/-) the stronger the relationship
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57. Positive Correlation
A relationship between variables in which one variable increases as the other also increases
Example: Hours of study and GPA
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58. Positive Correlation   A positive relationship means:
As (A) increases, so does (B)
 
Hours of study (A) is positively correlated with GPA (B)
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59. Negative Correlation
A relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other decreases.
Example: Hours of TV and GPA
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60. Negative Correlation  A negative relationship means:
As (A) increases, (B) decreases 
Number of hours of TV (A) has a negative relationship with GPA (B)
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61. GPA-> Hours of study
Correlation Research
Correlational research may suggest but does not show cause and effect
Often seems clear cut:
Increase in Hours of study-> increase in GPA
But could go other way:
Students doing well in school are motivated to study more
GPA-> Hours of study
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65. Correlation Research
Or some third factor (Confounding Variable): Achievement Motivation could cause both
-> Hours of study
-> GPA
Test: length of marriage is correlated with male baldness.
Does marriage cause baldness?
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66. Scatterplots
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship.
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67. Scatterplots
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
The Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation, while the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables.
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69. Data showing height and temperament in people.
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70. Scatterplot
The Scatterplot below shows the relationship between height and temperament in people. There is a moderate positive correlation of
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71. Correlation and Causation
OBJECTIVE 9| Explain why correlational research fails to provide evidence of cause-effect relationships.
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72. Disconfirming evidence
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
Confirming evidence
Disconfirming evidence
Do not
adopt
Adopt
Do not conceive
Conceive
OBJECTIVE 10| Describe how people form illusory correlations.
Michael Newman Jr./ Photo Edit
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73. does NOT mean Causation!!!
IMPORTANT
Correlation
does NOT mean Causation!!!
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74. Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.
Order in Random Events
Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.
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75. Order in Random Events
Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order.
Jerry Telfer/ San Francisco Chronicle
OBJECTIVE 11| Explain the human tendency to perceive order in random events.
Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same day.
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76. Exploring Cause and Effect
Experimentation
Exploring Cause and Effect
Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychology research. Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
OBJECTIVE 12| Explain how experiments help researchers isolate cause and effect.
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77. Experimental Method
A scientific method that seeks to confirm cause and effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables.
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78. Experimental Method
Treatment: in experiments, a condition received by participants so that its effects may be observed.
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79. Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.
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80. Independent Variable
An Independent Variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study.
For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the independent variable.
OBJECTIVE 14| Explain the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
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81. Dependent Variable
A Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable.
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82. Experimental Research
Manipulate the Independent Variable (IV)
Holding all other variables constant
Observe the impact on the Dependent Variable (DV)
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83. DRY MIX Dependent Manipulate Result Independent Y X
Operational Definition of DV-the parameters of how we measure things
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84. Experimental Research
Example: Aggression & Alcohol
(IV): Alcohol
-administered at different levels, doses
(DV):Aggressive behavior
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85. Experimental Research
Experimental Participants:
Partake of the treatment (example: members would ingest alcohol)
Control Group: do not take the treatment
(example: do not ingest alcohol)
*** all other conditions are held constant (helps determine cause and effect)
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86. Placebo “Sugar pill” often results in the behavior that people expect.
Physicians now and then give sugar pills to demanding, but healthy people. They often report they feel better.
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87. Placebo
Example: Tonic water & alcohol
Giving participants placebo (tonic water) but they think they are drinking alcohol
We can conclude that changes in behavior stem from their beliefs about alcohol, not the alcohol itself.
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88. Blinds and Double Blinds
Expectations:
-Aggression may not have resulted from alcohol because individuals may have expectations of the effects of alcohol.
-People act in stereotypical ways when they believe they have been drinking alcohol.
(people may become less anxious in social situations, more aggressive, or more sexually aroused)
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89. Blind
Well-designed experiments control for the effects of expectations by creating conditions under which participants are unaware of the treatment.
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90. Double-Blind Studies
A study in which neither the participants nor the persons measuring results know who has received the treatment.
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91. Double-blind Procedure
Evaluating Therapies
Double-blind Procedure
In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenter’s assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment.
OBJECTIVE 13| Explain why random assignment and double-blind procedure build confidence in research findings.
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92. * Different from random sampling
Evaluating Therapies
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental (Breast-fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups.
* Different from random sampling
Sometime research participants out of enthusiasm or personal beliefs can affect the out come of an experiment. To control for such affects, a double-blind procedure is used, in which the participants and the experimenter’s assistants are not aware of which participants got real treatment and who got placebo.
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93. A summary of steps during experimentation.
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94. Below is a comparison of different research methods.
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95. Statistical Reasoning
Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data allowing us to see what the unaided eye misses.
OBJECTIVE 15| Explain the importance of statistical principles, and give an example of their use in daily life.
Composition of ethnicity in urban locales
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96. Describing Data
A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation may lead to incorrect conclusions.
OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how graphs can misrepresent data.
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97. Measures of Central Tendency
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together.
Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution.
OBJECTIVE 17| Describe three measures of central tendency and tell which is most affected by extreme scores.
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98. Quantify (count) the data within the bag=total M&Ms
M&Ms Activity
Quantify (count) the data within the bag=total M&Ms
Sort them according to color (10 orange, 3 red, 4 green, etc…)
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99. M&M Activity 3) Determine the groups quantity (total)
4) Find the groups mean
5) Find individual mode
6) Find group’s mode
Bi-modal=> two categories with the same mode
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100. Measures of Central Tendency
A Skewed Distribution
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101. Measures of Variation
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.
OBJECTIVE 18| Explain two measures of variation.
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102. M&M Activity Find the range of group’s bag quantity
*Highest # of m&ms-lowest # of m&ms
8) Find the range of colors in individual bag
9) Calculate Standard Deviation
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103. Standard Deviation Determine the mean
Subtract the mean from every number to get the list of deviations (negative numbers are ok)
Square the resulting list of numbers
Add up all the resulting squares to get their total sum
Divide your result by one less than the number of items in the list
To get the SD, take the square root of the resulting number
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104. Practice Standard Deviation
your list of numbers: 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 19
1) mean: ( ) / 6 = 42 / 6 = 7
2) list of deviations: -6, -4, -3, -1, 2, 12
3) squares of deviations: 36, 16, 9, 1, 4, 144
4) sum of deviations: = 210
5) divided by one less than the number of items in the list: 210 / 5 = 42
6) square root of this number: square root (42) = about 6.48
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105. Standard Deviation
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106. Making Inferences
A statistical statement of how frequently an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or by chance.
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107. When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Making Inferences
When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Representative samples are better than biased samples.
Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones.
More cases are better than fewer cases.
OBJECTIVE 19| Identify three principles for making generalizations from samples.
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108. When is a Difference Significant?
Making Inferences
When is a Difference Significant?
When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance.
For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level set at 5 percent (.05)
OBJECTIVE 20| Explain how psychologists decide whether differences are meaningful.
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109. Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
FAQ
Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
Ans: Artificial laboratory conditions are created to study behavior in simplistic terms. The goal is to find underlying principles that govern behavior.
OBJECTIVE 21| Explain the value of simplified laboratory conditions in discovering general principles of behavior.
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110. Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture?
FAQ
Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture?
Ans: Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary across cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes are much the same.
OBJECTIVE 22| Discuss whether psychological research can be generalized across cultures and genders.
Ami Vitale/ Getty Images
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111. Q3. Does behavior vary with gender?
FAQ
Q3. Does behavior vary with gender?
Ans: Yes. Biology determines our sex, and culture further bends the genders. However, in many ways woman and man are similarly human.
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112. Q4. Why do psychologists study animals?
FAQ
Q4. Why do psychologists study animals?
Ans: Studying animals gives us the understanding of many behaviors that may have common biology across animals and humans.
OBJECTIVE 23| Explain why psychologists study animals, and discuss the ethics of experimentation with both animals and humans.
D. Shapiro, © Wildlife Conservation Society
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113. Q5. Is it ethical to experiment on animals?
FAQ
Q5. Is it ethical to experiment on animals?
Ans: Yes. To gain insights to devastating and fatal diseases. All researchers who deal with animal research are required to follow ethical guidelines in caring for these animals.
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114. Q6. Is it ethical to experiment on people?
FAQ
Q6. Is it ethical to experiment on people?
Ans: Yes. Experiments that do not involve any kind of physical or psychological harm beyond normal levels encountered in daily life may be carried out.
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115. Q7. Is psychology free of value judgments?
FAQ
Q7. Is psychology free of value judgments?
Ans: No. Psychology emerges from people who subscribe to a set of values and judgments.
OBJECTIVE 24| Describe how personal values can influence psychologists’ research and its application, and discuss psychology’s potential to manipulate people.
© Roger Shepard
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116. Q8. Is psychology potentially dangerous?
FAQ
Q8. Is psychology potentially dangerous?
Ans: It can be, but it is not. The purpose of psychology is to help humanity with problems such as war, hunger, prejudice, crime, family dysfunction, etc.
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