1. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Chapter 6
Learning
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Learning
Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes
Habituation – Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus
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Learning
Mere exposure effect – Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed
Behavioral learning – Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (e.g. classical and operant conditioning)
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4. What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain?
Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response
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5. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Neutral stimulus – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning
Acquisition – Initial learning stage in classical conditioning; conditioned response becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus
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6. Classical Conditioning
This is passive learning (automatic…learner does NOT have to think).
First thing you need is a unconditional relationship.
Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)- something that elicits a natural, reflexive response.
Unconditional Response (UCR)- response to the UCS.

7. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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8. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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9. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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10. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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11. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
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12. Classical Conditioning
Prior to conditioning
Neutral stimulus
(tone)
(Orientation to sound
but no response)
Unconditioned stimulus
(food powder in mouth)
Unconditioned response
(salivation)
Conditioning
Neutral stimulus
CS (tone)
Conditioned response
(salivation) +
Unconditioned stimulus
(food powder)
After conditioning
Conditioned stimulus
(tone)
Conditioned response
(salivation)
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13. Classical Conditioning
Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer
Spontaneous recovery – Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay
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14. Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
Strength of the CR
(Weak)
(Strong)
(Time)
Trials
(1)
Acquisition
(CS + UCS)
(2)
Extinction
(CS alone)
(3)
Spontaneous Recovery
(CS alone)
Rest period
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15. Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus generalization involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS
Stimulus discrimination involves responding to one stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar
Confusing stimuli may cause experimental neurosis
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16. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Taste-aversion learning – Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness
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17. Classical Conditioning and Humans
John Watson brought Classical Conditioning to psychology with his Baby Albert experiment.
This type of Classical Conditioning is also known as Aversive Conditioning.

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A Challenge to Pavlov
Why are some stimuli-consequence combinations readily learned while other combinations are highly resistant to learning?
What any organism can or cannot learn in a given setting is due in part to its evolutionary history
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19. How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning?
In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the chance that our behavior will occur again
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20. How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning?
Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences
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21. The Learner is NOT passive. Learning based on consequence!!!
Operant Conditioning
The Learner is NOT passive.
Learning based on consequence!!!

22. The Law of Effect Edward Thorndike Locked cats in a cage
Behavior changes because of its consequences.
Rewards strengthen behavior.
If consequences are unpleasant, the Stimulus-Reward connection will weaken.
Called the whole process instrumental learning.
Click picture to see a better explanation of the Law of Effect.

23. B.F. Skinner The Mac Daddy of Operant Conditioning.
Nurture guy through and through.
Used a Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to prove his concepts.

24. The Power of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcers – Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again
Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior
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25. The Power of Reinforcement
Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism
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26. The Power of Reinforcement
Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers)
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27. Contingencies of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced
Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement)
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28. Contingencies of Reinforcement
Extinction – In operant conditioning, a process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement
How does this differ from extinction in classical conditioning?
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29. Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses
Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Interval (VI)
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30. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses
Variable Ratio (VR)
e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Interval (VI)
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31. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
e.g. slot machine pay-offs
Variable Interval (VI)
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32. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks
Variable Interval (VI)
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33. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise
Variable Interval (VI)
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34. The Problem of Punishment
Punishment – An aversive stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows
How does this differ from negative reinforcement?
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35. Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement
Response
Consequence
Negative Reinforcement
Loud Noise
Press Lever
Loud Noise Removed
Punishment
No Noise
Press Lever
Loud Noise Applied
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36. The Problem of Punishment
Positive punishment – The application of an aversive stimulus after a response
Omission training (negative punishment) – The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response
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37. Four Kinds of Consequences
Positive or appetitive
STIMULUS
Negative or aversive
+ Present
Positive Reinforcement
Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work
Punishment
Spanking leads to less talking back from children
- Remove
Negative Reinforcement
Aspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use
Omission Training
Paying a speeding ticket leads to less speeding
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38. The Use and Abuse of Punishment
Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed
Punishment
Often triggers aggression
May inhibit learning new and better responses
Is often applied unequally
When does punishment work?
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39. Alternatives to Punishment
Extinction
Reinforcing preferred activities
Premack principle
Prompting and shaping
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40. Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared
Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior
Operant conditioning involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior
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41. How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?
According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone
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42. How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?
Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions
Cognitive maps – A mental representation of physical space
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43. Insight Learning
Wolfgang Kohler and his Chimpanzees. Some animals learn through the “ah ha” experience.
Click pic to see insight learning.

44. Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism
Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior
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45. Observational Learning
Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll We learn through modeling behavior from others. Observational learning + Operant Conditioning = Social Learning Theory

46. Brain Mechanisms and Learning
Long-term potentiation – Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; believed to be the neural basis of learning
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End of Chapter 6
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