1. INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS
CHAPTER 11
INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS

2. CHAPTER MYSTERY – video on phsuccessnet.com

3. The Work of Gregor Mendel
SECTION 11-1
The Work of Gregor Mendel

4. Key Concept Questions What is the principle of dominance?
What happens during segregation?

5. Modern genetics began in the mid-1800s in an abbey garden, where a monk named Gregor Mendel documented inheritance in peas
Traits are distinguishing characteristics that are inherited.
Genetics is the study of biological inheritance patterns and variation.
Heredity is the study of inheritance of characteristics from one generation to the next
Gregor Mendel showed that traits are inherited as discrete units.
Many in Mendel’s day thought traits were blended.

6. Mendel made three key decisions in his experiments.
use of purebred plants
control over breeding
observation of seven “either-or” traits

7. The peas were TRUE-BREEDING or purebred
If they were allowed to self-pollinate, they would produce offspring identical to themselves
all purple flowers
all tall
all short
all green seeds
all yellow seeds

8. Quick plant reproduction

9. Fertilization - process in sexual reproduction in which male and female reproductive cells join to form a new cell
Self-pollination – pollen fertilizes egg cells in the same flower
Cross-pollination – pollen from one flower fertilizes egg cells of a different flower = seeds with two parents

10. Original pair of pea plants =
P generation = parental generation
Offspring = F1 = first filial generation
Mini Latin Lesson:
Filius = son

11. Mendel used pollen to fertilize selected pea plants.
He crossed purebred purple flowers to purebred white flowers
P generation crossed to produce F1 generation
The F1 generation are hybrids – offspring of parents with different characteristics.
interrupted the self-pollination process by removing male flower parts
Mendel controlled the
fertilization of his pea plants
by removing the male parts,
or stamens.
He then fertilized the female
part, or pistil, with pollen from
a different pea plant.

12. Mendel allowed the resulting plants to self-pollinate.
Among the F1 generation, all plants had purple flowers
Among the F2 generation, some plants had purple flowers and some had white

13. McDougall Littell video – Mendel’s experiment

14. Mendel wondered why the recessive alleles seem to disappear in the F1 generation and then reappear in the F2 generation?
He thought that at some point the alleles for purple and white in the F1 plants were SEGREGATED – separated from each other during the formation of GAMETES – sex cells

15. Mendel observed the same patterns in the first and second generations of his 7 crosses.

16. Mendel drew three important conclusions.
Traits are inherited as discrete units.
Organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent.
The two copies segregate during gamete formation.
The last two conclusions are called the law of segregation.
purple
white

17. The same gene can have many versions.
A gene is a piece of DNA that directs a cell to make a certain protein.
Each gene has a locus, a specific position on a pair of homologous chromosomes.
An allele is any alternative form of a gene occurring at a specific locus on a chromosome.

18. CHAPTER MYSTERY CLUE #1 –
Parakeets come in four colors: white, green, blue, and yellow.
How many alleles might there be for feather color?
Two alleles because there are four possible phenotypes

19. Principle of Dominance
Alleles can be represented using letters.
A dominant allele is expressed when at least one allele is dominant.
A recessive allele is expressed only when two copies are present.
Dominant alleles are represented by uppercase letters; recessive alleles by lowercase letters.

20. Law of segregation P PP p pp Pp
when gametes are produced during meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate from each other
each allele for a trait is packaged into a separate gamete PP P pp p Pp

21. McDougall Littell video – Mendel’s law of Segregation

22. Fun Fact!
Basenjis are small dogs with pointed ears, short silky hair, and rows of wrinkles on their foreheads.
Basenjis cannot bark, but they can make yodeling type sounds.
Basenjis can mate with barking breeds to produce puppies that bark.
Hypothesize a genetic explanation for why basenjis cannot bark.
The ability to bark is a dominant trait in dogs. Basenjis have two recessive genes for this character.

23. Key Concept Questions What is the principle of dominance?
The dominant allele gets expressed and the recessive allele is masked
What happens during segregation?
each allele for a trait is packaged into a separate gamete

24. Genetics and Probability
SECTION 11-2
Genetics and Probability

25. Key Concept Questions
How do geneticists use the principles of probability?
How do geneticists use Punnett squares?

26. Heredity patterns can be calculated with probability.
Probability is the likelihood that something will happen.
Probability predicts an average number of occurrences, not an exact number of occurrences.
Probability applies to random events such as meiosis and fertilization.

27. number of ways a specific event can occur
Probability =
number of ways a specific event can occur
number of total possible outcomes

28. What is the probability of flipping a coin and landing on heads three times in a row?
½ x ½ x ½ = 1/8

29. What is the probability of rolling a die and landing on 3 three times in a row?
1/6 x 1/6 x 1/6 = 1/216

30. Punnett squares illustrate genetic crosses.
The Punnett Square is a grid system for predicting all possible genotypes resulting from a cross.
The axes represent the possible gametes of each parent.
The boxes show the possible genotypes of the offspring.
The Punnett square yields the ratio of possible genotypes and phenotypes.

31. Genes influence the development of traits.
All of an organism’s genetic material is called the genome.
A genotype refers to the makeup of a specific set of genes.
A phenotype is the physical expression of a trait.
Purple is the phenotype
PP and Pp are the genotypes for purple flower color

32. Each parent donates one allele for every gene.
Homozygous describes two alleles that are the same at a specific locus.
PP or pp
Heterozygous describes two alleles that are different at a specific locus. Pp

33. Both homozygous dominant and heterozygous genotypes express dominant phenotypes. (PP, Pp)

34. homozygous dominant X homozygous recessive
all heterozygous, all dominant phenotype

35. Heterozygous X heterozygous
1:2:1 homozygous dominant genotype
3:1 purple:white phenotype
2 organisms can have the same phenotype but have different genotypes
FF and Ff show the same color but have different alleles

36. Heterozygous X homozygous recessive
1:1 heterozygous:homozygous recessive
1:1 purple:white

37. Key Concept Questions
How do geneticists use the principles of probability?
They use probability to try to determine the genetic outcome of a cross between two organisms
How do geneticists use Punnett squares?
They use Punnett squares to determine all the possible outcomes of a particular cross

38. Exploring Mendelian Genetics
SECTION 11-3
Exploring Mendelian Genetics

39. Key Concept Questions What is the principle of independent assortment?
What inheritance patterns exist aside from simple dominance?

40. A dihybrid cross involves two traits.
Mendel’s dihybrid crosses with heterozygous plants yielded a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio.

41. Mendel’s dihybrid crosses led to his second law, the law of independent assortment.
allele pairs separate into gametes independently
non-homologous chromosomes align independently
classes of gametes produced in equal amounts
YR = Yr = yR = yr
only true for genes on separate chromosomes
yellow
green
round
wrinkled
YyRr Yr Yr yR yR YR YR yr yr 1 : 1 : 1 : 1

42. Most traits occur in a range and do not follow simple dominant-recessive patterns.
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
One allele is not completely dominant over another

43. Ex) Four o’clock plants Red flowers = RR; white flowers = WW; pink flowers RW
The heterozygous phenotype is somewhere between the two homozygous phenotypes
What phenotypic ratio would you expect to see if two heterozygous plants with pink flowers were crossed?
1 red:2 pink:1 white

44. CODOMINANCE
Both alleles contribute to the phenotype of the organism
Ex) Cattle that are roan colored – red hairs and white hairs are both displayed in the coat color
Ex) chickens will have an allele for black feathers and one for white feathers that are codominant and you see a speckled looking chicken

45. MULTIPLE ALLELES
Many genes are said to have more than two alleles
Ex) coat color in rabbits – has four different alleles – the rabbit can only have two of those alleles but in various possible combinations

46. CHAPTER MYSTERY
CLUE #2
Green feathers don’t actually contain green pigments. Rather, they contain a mixture of blue and yellow pigments.
Could feather color be controlled by more than one gene?
There is probably two genes – one for each color

47. POLYGENIC TRAITS
Traits controlled by two or more genes
Ex) range of skin color in humans – four different genes control this trait
What Happens in Albino people?
Gene for skin pigment has dominant allele ‘A’ for skin coloration
Homozygous recessive have aa = albino – person who lacks the pigment melanin that gives human skin its color

48. If two people with normal skin color have a child with albinism, what are the odds that a second child will also have albinism?
Use a Punnett square to show your answer

49. A aa

50. 1 in four probability the next child will be albinoAA Aa aa
1 in four probability the next child will be albino

51. Genes and the environment
Environmental conditions can change gene expression and influence genetically controlled traits.

52. Key Concept Questions What is the principle of independent assortment?
different genes separate into gametes independently
What inheritance patterns exist aside from simple dominance?
Incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, polygenic traits, environment

53. SECTION 11-4
Meiosis

54. Key Concept Questions What happens during the process of meiosis?
Why is crossing over important?
How is meiosis different from mitosis?

55. You have body cells and gametes.
Body cells are also called somatic cells.
Germ cells develop into gametes.
Germ cells are located in the ovaries and testes.
Gametes are sex cells: egg and sperm.
Gametes have DNA that can be passed to offspring.
body cells
sex cells (sperm)
sex cells (egg)

56. Your cells have autosomes and sex chromosomes.
Your body cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Homologous pairs of chromosomes have the same structure.
For each homologous pair, one chromosome comes from each parent.
Chromosome pairs 1-22 are autosomes.
Sex chromosomes, X and Y, determine gender in mammals.

57. Body cells are diploid; gametes are haploid.
Fertilization between egg and sperm occurs in sexual reproduction.
Diploid (2n) cells have two copies of every chromosome.
Body cells are diploid.
Half the chromosomes come from each parent.

58. Haploid (n) cells have one copy of every chromosome.
Gametes are haploid.
Gametes have 22 autosomes and 1 sex chromosome.

59. Chromosome number must be maintained in animals.
Many plants have more than two copies of each chromosome.
Mitosis and meiosis are types of nuclear division that make different types of cells.
Mitosis makes
more diploid cells.

60. Meiosis makes haploid cells from diploid cells.
Meiosis occurs in sex cells.
Meiosis produces gametes.

61. Cells go through two rounds of division in meiosis.
Meiosis reduces chromosome number and creates genetic diversity.

62. Meiosis I and meiosis II each have four phases, similar to those in mitosis.
Pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis I.
Homologous chromosomes are similar but not identical.
Sister chromatids divide in meiosis II.
Sister chromatids are copies of the same chromosome.
homologous chromosomes
sister
chromatids
sister
chromatids

63. Meiosis I occurs after DNA has been replicated.
Meiosis I divides homologous chromosomes in four phases.

64. Crossing over 3 steps New combinations of traits cross over
breakage of DNA
re-fusing of DNA
New combinations of traits
Tetrad

65. Meiosis II divides sister chromatids in four phases.
DNA is not replicated between meiosis I and meiosis II.

66. McDougall Littell video - Meiosis

67. Haploid cells develop into mature gametes.
Gametogenesis is the production of gametes.
Gametogenesis differs between females and males.
Sperm become streamlined and motile.
Sperm primarily contribute DNA to an embryo.
Eggs contribute DNA, cytoplasm, and organelles to an embryo.
During meiosis, the egg gets most of the contents; the other cells form polar bodies.

68. The value of sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction introduces genetic variation
genetic recombination during meiosis
independent assortment of chromosomes
random alignment of homologous chromosomes in Meiosis 1
crossing over
mixing of alleles across homologous chromosomes
random fertilization
which sperm fertilizes which egg?
Driving evolution
variation for natural selection

69. McDougall Littell video – Law of Independent Assortment

70. Meiosis differs from mitosis in significant ways.
Meiosis has two cell divisions while mitosis has one.
In mitosis, homologous chromosomes never pair up.
Meiosis results in haploid cells; mitosis results in diploid cells.

71. Mitosis vs. Meiosis

72. Mitosis vs. Meiosis Mitosis 1 division
daughter cells genetically identical to parent cell
produces 2 cells
2n  2n
produces cells for growth & repair
no crossing over
Meiosis
2 divisions
daughter cells genetically different from parent
produces 4 cells
2n  1n
produces gametes
crossing over

73. Putting it all together…
meiosis  fertilization  mitosis + development
gametes 46 23 46 23 46 46 46 46 46 23
meiosis 46 46
egg 46 46 23
zygote
fertilization
mitosis & development
mitosis
sperm

74. Variation from random fertilization
Sperm + Egg = ?
any 2 parents will produce a zygote with over 70 trillion (223 x 223) possible diploid combinations

75. Sexual reproduction creates variability
Sexual reproduction allows us to maintain both genetic similarity & differences.
Michael & Kirk Douglas
Baldwin brothers
Martin & Charlie Sheen, Emilio Estevez

76. Key Concept Questions What happens during the process of meiosis?
The chromosome number is reduced by half
Why is crossing over important?
It creates new genetic combinations and more variety.
How is meiosis different from mitosis?

77. Mitosis vs. Meiosis Mitosis Meiosis ___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________
Meiosis
___________________
___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________
___________________ ___________________

78. SECTION 11-5
Linkage and Gene Maps

79. Key Concept Question
What structures actually assort independently?

80. Gene linkage was explained through fruit flies.
Morgan found that linked traits are on the same chromosome.
Chromosomes, not genes, assort independently during meiosis.
Wild type
Mutant

81. CHAPTER MYSTERY
CLUE #3
White is the least common color found in parakeets.
What does this fact suggest about the genotypes of both green parents?
Parents were probably heterozygous to produce a homozygous recessive offspring

82. The genes for this fruit fly’s reddish-orange eyes and miniature wings are almost always inherited together. The reason for this is the genes are close together on a single chromosome

83. Linked genes are not inherited together every time.
Chromosomes exchange homologous genes during meiosis.

84. Linkage maps estimate distances between genes.
The closer together two genes are, the more likely they will be inherited together.
Cross-over frequencies are related to distances between genes.
Gene linkage maps show the relative locations of genes.

85. Cross-over frequencies can be converted into map units.
gene A and gene B cross over 6.0 percent of the time
gene B and gene C cross over 12.5 percent of the time
gene A and gene C cross over 18.5 percent of the time

86. Key Concept Question What structures actually assort independently?
Chromosomes